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As I understand, MATLAB cannot use pass by reference when sending arguments to other functions. I am doing audio processing, and I frequently have to pass waveforms as arguments into functions, and because MATLAB uses pass by value for these arguments, it really eats up a lot of RAM when I do this.
I was considering using global variables as a method to pass my waveforms into functions, but everywhere I read there seems to be a general opinion that this is a bad idea, for organization of code, and potentially performance issues... but I haven't really read any detailed answers on how this might impact performance...
My question: What are the negative impacts of using global variables (with sizes > 100MB) to pass arguments to other functions in MATLAB, both in terms of 1) performance and 2) general code organization and good practice.
EDIT: From #Justin's answer below, it turns out MATLAB does on occasion use pass by reference when you do not modify the argument within the function! From this, I have a second related question about global variable performance:
Will using global variables be any slower than using pass by reference arguments to functions?
MATLAB does use pass by reference, but also uses copy-on-write. That is to say, your variable will be passed by reference into the function (and so won't double up on RAM), but if you change the variable within the the function, then MATLAB will create a copy and change the copy (leaving the original unaffected).
This fact doesn't seem to be too well known, but there's a good post on Loren's blog discussing it.
Bottom line: it sounds like you don't need to use global variables at all (which are a bad idea as #Adriaan says).
While relying on copy on write as Justin suggested is typically the best choice, you can easily implement pass by reference. With Matlab oop being nearly as fast as traditional functions in Matlab 2015b or newer, using handle is a reasonable option.
I encountered an interesting use case of a global variable yesterday. I tried to parallellise a piece of code (1200 lines, multiple functions inside the main function, not written by me), using parfor.
Some weird errors came out and it turned out that this piece of code wrote to a log file, but used multiple functions to write to the log file. Rather than opening and closing the relevant log file every time a function wanted to write to it, which is very slow, the file ID was made global, so that all write-functions could access it.
For the serial case this made perfect sense, but when trying to parallellise this, using global apparently breaks the scope of a worker instance as well. So suddenly we had 4 workers all trying to write into the same log file, which resulted in some weird errors.
So all in all, I maintain my position that using global variables is generally a bad idea, although I can see its use in specific cases, provided you know what you're doing.
Using global variables in Matlab may increase performance alot. This is because you can avoid copying of data in some cases.
Before attempting to gain such performance tweaks, think carefully of the cost to your project, in terms of the many drawbacks that global variables come with. There are also pitfalls to using globals with bad consequences to performance, and those may be difficult to avoid(although possible). Any code that is littered with globals tend to be difficult to comprehend.
If you want to see globals in use for performance, you can look at this real-time toolbox for optical flow that I made. This is the only project in native Matlab that is capable of real-time optical flow that I know of. Using globals was one of the reasons this was doable. It is also a reason to why the code is quite difficult to grasp: Globals are evil.
That globals can be used this way is not a way to argue for their use, rather it should be a hint that something should be updated with Matlabs unflexible notions of workspace and inefficient alternatives to globals such as guidata/getappdata/setappdata.
I am aware that this is nothing new and has been done several times. But I am looking for some reference implementation (or even just reference design) as a "best practices guide". We have a real-time embedded environment and the idea is to be able to use a "debug shell" in order to invoke some commands. Example: "SomeDevice print reg xyz" will request the SomeDevice sub-system to print the value of the register named xyz.
I have a small set of routines that is essentially made up of 3 functions and a lookup table:
a function that gathers a command line - it's simple; there's no command line history or anything, just the ability to backspace or press escape to discard the whole thing. But if I thought fancier editing capabilities were needed, it wouldn't be too hard to add them here.
a function that parses a line of text argc/argv style (see Parse string into argv/argc for some ideas on this)
a function that takes the first arg on the parsed command line and looks it up in a table of commands & function pointers to determine which function to call for the command, so the command handlers just need to match the prototype:
int command_handler( int argc, char* argv[]);
Then that function is called with the appropriate argc/argv parameters.
Actually, the lookup table also has pointers to basic help text for each command, and if the command is followed by '-?' or '/?' that bit of help text is displayed. Also, if 'help' is used for a command, the command table is dumped (possible only a subset if a parameter is passed to the 'help' command).
Sorry, I can't post the actual source - but it's pretty simple and straight forward to implement, and functional enough for pretty much all the command line handling needs I've had for embedded systems development.
You might bristle at this response, but many years ago we did something like this for a large-scale embedded telecom system using lex/yacc (nowadays I guess it would be flex/bison, this was literally 20 years ago).
Define your grammar, define ranges for parameters, etc... and then let lex/yacc generate the code.
There is a bit of a learning curve, as opposed to rolling a 1-off custom implementation, but then you can extend the grammar, add new commands & parameters, change ranges, etc... extremely quickly.
You could check out libcli. It emulates Cisco's CLI and apparently also includes a telnet server. That might be more than you are looking for, but it might still be useful as a reference.
If your needs are quite basic, a debug menu which accepts simple keystrokes, rather than a command shell, is one way of doing this.
For registers and RAM, you could have a sub-menu which just does a memory dump on demand.
Likewise, to enable or disable individual features, you can control them via keystrokes from the main menu or sub-menus.
One way of implementing this is via a simple state machine. Each screen has a corresponding state which waits for a keystroke, and then changes state and/or updates the screen as required.
vxWorks includes a command shell, that embeds the symbol table and implements a C expression evaluator so that you can call functions, evaluate expressions, and access global symbols at runtime. The expression evaluator supports integer and string constants.
When I worked on a project that migrated from vxWorks to embOS, I implemented the same functionality. Embedding the symbol table required a bit of gymnastics since it does not exist until after linking. I used a post-build step to parse the output of the GNU nm tool for create a symbol table as a separate load module. In an earlier version I did not embed the symbol table at all, but rather created a host-shell program that ran on the development host where the symbol table resided, and communicated with a debug stub on the target that could perform function calls to arbitrary addresses and read/write arbitrary memory. This approach is better suited to memory constrained devices, but you have to be careful that the symbol table you are using and the code on the target are for the same build. Again that was an idea I borrowed from vxWorks, which supports both teh target and host based shell with the same functionality. For the host shell vxWorks checksums the code to ensure the symbol table matches; in my case it was a manual (and error prone) process, which is why I implemented the embedded symbol table.
Although initially I only implemented memory read/write and function call capability I later added an expression evaluator based on the algorithm (but not the code) described here. Then after that I added simple scripting capabilities in the form of if-else, while, and procedure call constructs (using a very simple non-C syntax). So if you wanted new functionality or test, you could either write a new function, or create a script (if performance was not an issue), so the functions were rather like 'built-ins' to the scripting language.
To perform the arbitrary function calls, I used a function pointer typedef that took an arbitrarily large (24) number of arguments, then using the symbol table, you find the function address, cast it to the function pointer type, and pass it the real arguments, plus enough dummy arguments to make up the expected number and thus create a suitable (if wasteful) maintain stack frame.
On other systems I have implemented a Forth threaded interpreter, which is a very simple language to implement, but has a less than user friendly syntax perhaps. You could equally embed an existing solution such as Lua or Ch.
For a small lightweight thing you could use forth. Its easy to get going ( forth kernels are SMALL)
look at figForth, LINa and GnuForth.
Disclaimer: I don't Forth, but openboot and the PCI bus do, and I;ve used them and they work really well.
Alternative UI's
Deploy a web sever on your embedded device instead. Even serial will work with SLIP and the UI can be reasonably complex ( or even serve up a JAR and get really really complex.
If you really need a CLI, then you can point at a link and get a telnet.
One alternative is to use a very simple binary protocol to transfer the data you need, and then make a user interface on the PC, using e.g. Python or whatever is your favourite development tool.
The advantage is that it minimises the code in the embedded device, and shifts as much of it as possible to the PC side. That's good because:
It uses up less embedded code space—much of the code is on the PC instead.
In many cases it's easier to develop a given functionality on the PC, with the PC's greater tools and resources.
It gives you more interface options. You can use just a command line interface if you want. Or, you could go for a GUI, with graphs, data logging, whatever fancy stuff you might want.
It gives you flexibility. Embedded code is harder to upgrade than PC code. You can change and improve your PC-based tool whenever you want, without having to make any changes to the embedded device.
If you want to look at variables—If your PC tool is able to read the ELF file generated by the linker, then it can find out a variable's location from the symbol table. Even better, read the DWARF debug data and know the variable's type as well. Then all you need is a "read-memory" protocol message on the embedded device to get the data, and the PC does the decoding and displaying.
I commonly place into variables values that are only used once after assignment. I do this to make debugging more convenient later, as I'm able to hover the value on the one line where it's later used.
For example, this code doesn't let you hover the value of GetFoo():
return GetFoo();
But this code does:
var foo = GetFoo();
return foo; // your hover-foo is great
This smells very YAGNI-esque, as the functionality of the foo's assignment won't ever be used until someone needs to debug its value, which may never happen. If it weren't for the merely foreseen debugging session, the first code snippet above keeps the code simpler.
How would you write the code to best compromise between simplicity and ease of debugger use?
I don't know about other debuggers, but the integrated Visual Studio debugger will report what was returned from a function in the "Autos" window; once you step over the return statement, the return value shows up as "[function name] returned" with a value of whatever value was returned.
gdb supports the same functionality as well; the "finish" command executes the rest of the current function and prints the return value.
This being a very useful feature, I'd be surprised if most other debuggers didn't support this capability.
As for the more general "problem" of "debugger-only variables," are they really debugger-only? I tend to think that the use of well-named temporary variables can significantly improve code readability as well.
Another possibility is to learn enough assembly programming that you can read the code your compiler generates. With that skill, you can figure out where the value is being held (in a register, in memory) and see the value without having to store it in a variable.
This skill is very useful if you are ever need to debug an optimized executable. The optimizer can generate code that is significantly different from how you wrote it such that symbolic debugging is not helpful.
Another reason why you don't need intermediate variables in the Visual Studio debugger is that you can evaluate the function in the Watch Window and the Immediate window. For the watch window, just simply highlight the statement you want evaluated and drag it into the window.
I'd argue that it's not worth worrying about. Given that there's no runtime overhead in the typical case, go nuts. I think that breaking down complex statements into multiple simple statements usually increases readability.
I would leave out the assignment until it is needed. If you never happen to be in that bit of code, wanting a look at that variable, you haven't cluttered up your code unnecessarily. When you run across the need, put it in (it should be a trivial Extract Variable refactoring). And when you're done with that debugging session, get rid of it (Inline Variable). If you find yourself debugging so much - and so much at that particular point - that you're weary of refactoring back and forth, then think about ways to avoid the need; maybe more unit tests would help.
What would be the absolute fastest possible way to write a string to the standard/console output on Windows? I'm interested in the solution for both null- and non-null-terminated strings.
WriteConsole is pretty much the fastest you can get. It's still inter-process call to win32csr (on Windows 7 it's different, but it is still IPC) using LPC, so don't expect performance to be something surprising.
2nd on the WriteConsole answer, you can write the entire screen in one call;
but also 2nd on what Austin says: having ultrafast console output as a requirement for an application sounds a bit strange to me.
Anyway if it's really a bottleneck, maybe use some kind of logging system and provide actual logging to the console a seperate thread?
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Closed 9 years ago.
Interview question-
Often its pretty easier to debug a program once you have trouble with your code.You can put watches,breakpoints and etc.Life is much easier because of debugger.
But how to debug a program without a debugger?
One possible approach which I know is simply putting print statements in your code wherever you want to check for the problems.
Are there any other approaches other than this?
As its a general question, its not restricted to any specific language.So please share your thoughts on how you would have done it?
EDIT- While submitting your answer, please mention a useful resource (if you have any) about any concept. e.g. Logging
This will be lot helpful for those who don't know about it at all.(This includes me, in some cases :)
UPDATE: Michal Sznajderhas put a real "best" answer and also made it a community wiki.Really deserves lots of up votes.
Actually you have quite a lot of possibilities. Either with recompilation of source code or without.
With recompilation.
Additional logging. Either into program's logs or using system logging (eg. OutputDebugString or Events Log on Windows). Also use following steps:
Always include timestamp at least up to seconds resolution.
Consider adding thread-id in case of multithreaded apps.
Add some nice output of your structures
Do not print out enums with just %d. Use some ToString() or create some EnumToString() function (whatever suits your language)
... and beware: logging changes timings so in case of heavily multithreading you problems might disappear.
More details on this here.
Introduce more asserts
Unit tests
"Audio-visual" monitoring: if something happens do one of
use buzzer
play system sound
flash some LED by enabling hardware GPIO line (only in embedded scenarios)
Without recompilation
If your application uses network of any kind: Packet Sniffer or I will just choose for you: Wireshark
If you use database: monitor queries send to database and database itself.
Use virtual machines to test exactly the same OS/hardware setup as your system is running on.
Use some kind of system calls monitor. This includes
On Unix box strace or dtrace
On Windows tools from former Sysinternals tools like http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/sysinternals/bb896645.aspx, ProcessExplorer and alike
In case of Windows GUI stuff: check out Spy++ or for WPF Snoop (although second I didn't use)
Consider using some profiling tools for your platform. It will give you overview on thing happening in your app.
[Real hardcore] Hardware monitoring: use oscilloscope (aka O-Scope) to monitor signals on hardware lines
Source code debugging: you sit down with your source code and just pretend with piece of paper and pencil that you are computer. Its so called code analysis or "on-my-eyes" debugging
Source control debugging. Compare diffs of your code from time when "it" works and now. Bug might be somewhere there.
And some general tips in the end:
Do not forget about Text to Columns and Pivot Table in Excel. Together with some text tools (awk, grep or perl) give you incredible analysis pack. If you have more than 32K records consider using Access as data source.
Basics of Data Warehousing might help. With simple cube you may analyse tons of temporal data in just few minutes.
Dumping your application is worth mentioning. Either as a result of crash or just on regular basis
Always generate you debug symbols (even for release builds).
Almost last but not least: most mayor platforms has some sort of command line debugger always built in (even Windows!). With some tricks like conditional debugging and break-print-continue you can get pretty good result with obscure bugs
And really last but not least: use your brain and question everything.
In general debugging is like science: you do not create it you discover it. Quite often its like looking for a murderer in a criminal case. So buy yourself a hat and never give up.
First of all, what does debugging actually do? Advanced debuggers give you machine hooks to suspend execution, examine variables and potentially modify state of a running program. Most programs don't need all that to debug them. There are many approaches:
Tracing: implement some kind of logging mechanism, or use an existing one such as dtrace(). It usually worth it to implement some kind of printf-like function that can output generally formatted output into a system log. Then just throw state from key points in your program to this log. Believe it or not, in complex programs, this can be more useful than raw debugging with a real debugger. Logs help you know how you got into trouble, while a debugger that traps on a crash assumes you can reverse engineer how you got there from whatever state you are already in. For applications that you use other complex libraries that you don't own that crash in the middle of them, logs are often far more useful. But it requires a certain amount of discipline in writing your log messages.
Program/Library self-awareness: To solve very specific crash events, I often have implemented wrappers on system libraries such as malloc/free/realloc which extensions that can do things like walk memory, detect double frees, attempts to free non-allocated pointers, check for obvious buffer over-runs etc. Often you can do this sort of thing for your important internal data types as well -- typically you can make self-integrity checks for things like linked lists (they can't loop, and they can't point into la-la land.) Even for things like OS synchronization objects, often you only need to know which thread, or what file and line number (capturable by __FILE__, __LINE__) the last user of the synch object was to help you work out a race condition.
If you are insane like me, you could, in fact, implement your own mini-debugger inside of your own program. This is really only an option in a self-reflective programming language, or in languages like C with certain OS-hooks. When compiling C/C++ in Windows/DOS you can implement a "crash-hook" callback which is executed when any program fault is triggered. When you compile your program you can build a .map file to figure out what the relative addresses of all your public functions (so you can work out the loader initial offset by subtracting the address of main() from the address given in your .map file). So when a crash happens (even pressing ^C during a run, for example, so you can find your infinite loops) you can take the stack pointer and scan it for offsets within return addresses. You can usually look at your registers, and implement a simple console to let you examine all this. And voila, you have half of a real debugger implemented. Keep this going and you can reproduce the VxWorks' console debugging mechanism.
Another approach, is logical deduction. This is related to #1. Basically any crash or anomalous behavior in a program occurs when it stops behaving as expected. You need to have some feed back method of knowing when the program is behaving normally then abnormally. Your goal then is to find the exact conditions upon which your program goes from behaving correctly to incorrectly. With printf()/logs, or other feedback (such as enabling a device in an embedded system -- the PC has a speaker, but some motherboards also have a digital display for BIOS stage reporting; embedded systems will often have a COM port that you can use) you can deduce at least binary states of good and bad behavior with respect to the run state of your program through the instrumentation of your program.
A related method is logical deduction with respect to code versions. Often a program was working perfectly at one state, but some later version is not longer working. If you use good source control, and you enforce a "top of tree must always be working" philosophy amongst your programming team, then you can use a binary search to find the exact version of the code at which the failure occurs. You can use diffs then to deduce what code change exposes the error. If the diff is too large, then you have the task of trying to redo that code change in smaller steps where you can apply binary searching more effectively.
Just a couple suggestions:
1) Asserts. This should help you work out general expectations at different states of the program. As well familiarize yourself with the code
2) Unit tests. I have used these at times to dig into new code and test out APIs
One word: Logging.
Your program should write descriptive debug lines which include a timestamp to a log file based on a configurable debug level. Reading the resultant log files gives you information on what happened during the execution of the program. There are logging packages in every common programming language that make this a snap:
Java: log4j
.Net: NLog or log4net
Python: Python Logging
PHP: Pear Logging Framework
Ruby: Ruby Logger
C: log4c
I guess you just have to write fine-grain unit tests.
I also like to write a pretty-printer for my data structures.
I think the rest of the interview might go something like this...
Candidate: So you don't buy debuggers for your developers?
Interviewer: No, they have debuggers.
Candidate: So you are looking for programmers who, out of masochism or chest thumping hamartia, make things complicated on themselves even if they would be less productive?
Interviewer: No, I'm just trying to see if you know what you would do in a situation that will never happen.
Candidate: I suppose I'd add logging or print statements. Can I ask you a similar question?
Interviewer: Sure.
Candidate: How would you recruit a team of developers if you didn't have any appreciable interviewing skill to distinguish good prospects based on relevant information?
Peer review. You have been looking at the code for 8 hours and your brain is just showing you what you want to see in the code. A fresh pair of eyes can make all the difference.
Version control. Especially for large teams. If somebody changed something you rely on but did not tell you it is easy to find a specific change set that caused your trouble by rolling the changes back one by one.
On *nix systems, strace and/or dtrace can tell you an awful lot about the execution of your program and the libraries it uses.
Binary search in time is also a method: If you have your source code stored in a version-control repository, and you know that version 100 worked, but version 200 doesn't, try to see if version 150 works. If it does, the error must be between version 150 and 200, so find version 175 and see if it works... etc.
use println/log in code
use DB explorer to look at data in DB/files
write tests and put asserts in suspicious places
More generally, you can monitor side effects and output of the program, and trigger certain events in the program externally.
A Print statement isn't always appropriate. You might use other forms of output such as writing to the Event Log or a log file, writing to a TCP socket (I have a nice utility that can listen for that type of trace from my program), etc.
For programs that don't have a UI, you can trigger behavior you want to debug by using an external flag such as the existence of a file. You might have the program wait for the file to be created, then run through a behavior you're interested in while logging relevant events.
Another file's existence might trigger the program's internal state to be written to your logging mechanism.
like everyone else said:
Logging
Asserts
Extra Output
&
your favorite task manager or process
explorer
links here and here
Another thing I have not seen mentioned here that I have had to use quite a bit on embedded systems is serial terminals.
You can cannot a serial terminal to just about any type of device on the planet (I have even done it to embedded CPUs for hydraulics, generators, etc). Then you can write out to the serial port and see everything on the terminal.
You can get real fancy and even setup a thread that listens to the serial terminal and responds to commands. I have done this as well and implemented simple commands to dump a list, see internal variables, etc all from a simple 9600 baud RS-232 serial port!
Spy++ (and more recently Snoop for WPF) are tremendous for getting an insight into Windows UI bugs.
A nice read would be Delta Debugging from Andreas Zeller. It's like binary search for debugging