Calculating phi(k) for 1<k<N - algorithm

Given a large N, I need to iterate through all phi(k) such that 1 < k < N :
time-complexity must be O(N logN)
memory-complexity must be sub O(N) (since the values of N will be around 1012)
Is it possible? If so, how?

This can be done with Memory complexity O(Sqrt(N)) and CPU complexity O(N * Log(Log(N))) with an optimized windowed Sieve of Eratosthenes, as implemented in the code example below.
As no language was specified and as I do not know Python, I have implemented it in VB.net, however I can convert it to C# if you need that.
Imports System.Math
Public Class TotientSerialCalculator
'Implements an extremely efficient Serial Totient(phi) calculator '
' This implements an optimized windowed Sieve of Eratosthenes. The'
' window size is set at Sqrt(N) both to optimize collecting and '
' applying all of the Primes below Sqrt(N), and to minimize '
' window-turning overhead. '
' '
' CPU complexity is O( N * Log(Log(N)) ), which is virtually linear.'
' '
' MEM Complexity is O( Sqrt(N) ). '
' '
' This is probalby the ideal combination, as any attempt to further '
'reduce memory will almost certainly result in disproportionate increases'
'in CPU complexity, and vice-versa. '
Structure NumberFactors
Dim UnFactored As Long 'the part of the number that still needs to be factored'
Dim Phi As Long 'the totient value progressively calculated'
' (equals total numbers less than N that are CoPrime to N)'
'MEM = 8 bytes each'
End Structure
Private ReportInterval As Long
Private PrevLast As Long 'the last value in the previous window'
Private FirstValue As Long 'the first value in this windows range'
Private WindowSize As Long
Private LastValue As Long 'the last value in this windows range'
Private NextFirst As Long 'the first value in the next window'
'Array that stores all of the NumberFactors in the current window.'
' this is the primary memory consumption for the class and it'
' is 16 * Sqrt(N) Bytes, which is O(Sqrt(N)).'
Public Numbers() As NumberFactors
' For N=10^12 (1 trilion), this will be 16MB, which should be bearable anywhere.'
'(note that the Primes() array is a secondary memory consumer'
' at O(pi(Sqrt(N)), which will be within 10x of O(Sqrt(N)))'
Public Event EmitTotientPair(ByVal k As Long, ByVal Phi As Long)
'===== The Routine To Call: ========================'
Public Sub EmitTotientPairsToN(ByVal N As Long)
'Routine to Emit Totient pairs {k, Phi(k)} for k = 1 to N'
' 2009-07-14, RBarryYoung, Created.'
Dim i As Long
Dim k As Long 'the current number being factored'
Dim p As Long 'the current prime factor'
'Establish the Window frame:'
' note: WindowSize is the critical value that controls both memory'
' usage and CPU consumption and must be SQRT(N) for it to work optimally.'
WindowSize = Ceiling(Sqrt(CDbl(N)))
ReDim Numbers(0 To WindowSize - 1)
'Initialize the first window:'
MapWindow(1)
Dim IsFirstWindow As Boolean = True
'adjust this to control how often results are show'
ReportInterval = N / 100
'Allocate the primes array to hold the primes list:'
' Only primes <= SQRT(N) are needed for factoring'
' PiMax(X) is a Max estimate of the number of primes <= X'
Dim Primes() As Long, PrimeIndex As Long, NextPrime As Long
'init the primes list and its pointers'
ReDim Primes(0 To PiMax(WindowSize) - 1)
Primes(0) = 2 '"prime" the primes list with the first prime'
NextPrime = 1
'Map (and Remap) the window with Sqrt(N) numbers, Sqrt(N) times to'
' sequentially map all of the numbers <= N.'
Do
'Sieve the primes across the current window'
PrimeIndex = 0
'note: cant use enumerator for the loop below because NextPrime'
' changes during the first window as new primes <= SQRT(N) are accumulated'
Do While PrimeIndex < NextPrime
'get the next prime in the list'
p = Primes(PrimeIndex)
'find the first multiple of (p) in the current window range'
k = PrevLast + p - (PrevLast Mod p)
Do
With Numbers(k - FirstValue)
.UnFactored = .UnFactored \ p 'always works the first time'
.Phi = .Phi * (p - 1) 'Phi = PRODUCT( (Pi-1)*Pi^(Ei-1) )'
'The loop test that follows is probably the central CPU overhead'
' I believe that it is O(N*Log(Log(N)), which is virtually O(N)'
' ( for instance at N = 10^12, Log(Log(N)) = 3.3 )'
Do While (.UnFactored Mod p) = 0
.UnFactored = .UnFactored \ p
.Phi = .Phi * p
Loop
End With
'skip ahead to the next multiple of p: '
'(this is what makes it so fast, never have to try prime factors that dont apply)'
k += p
'repeat until we step out of the current window:'
Loop While k < NextFirst
'if this is the first window, then scan ahead for primes'
If IsFirstWindow Then
For i = Primes(NextPrime - 1) + 1 To p ^ 2 - 1 'the range of possible new primes'
'Dont go beyond the first window'
If i >= WindowSize Then Exit For
If Numbers(i - FirstValue).UnFactored = i Then
'this is a prime less than SQRT(N), so add it to the list.'
Primes(NextPrime) = i
NextPrime += 1
End If
Next
End If
PrimeIndex += 1 'move to the next prime'
Loop
'Now Finish & Emit each one'
For k = FirstValue To LastValue
With Numbers(k - FirstValue)
'Primes larger than Sqrt(N) will not be finished: '
If .UnFactored > 1 Then
'Not done factoring, must be an large prime factor remaining: '
.Phi = .Phi * (.UnFactored - 1)
.UnFactored = 1
End If
'Emit the value pair: (k, Phi(k)) '
EmitPhi(k, .Phi)
End With
Next
're-Map to the next window '
IsFirstWindow = False
MapWindow(NextFirst)
Loop While FirstValue <= N
End Sub
Sub EmitPhi(ByVal k As Long, ByVal Phi As Long)
'just a placeholder for now, that raises an event to the display form'
' periodically for reporting purposes. Change this to do the actual'
' emitting.'
If (k Mod ReportInterval) = 0 Then
RaiseEvent EmitTotientPair(k, Phi)
End If
End Sub
Public Sub MapWindow(ByVal FirstVal As Long)
'Efficiently reset the window so that we do not have to re-allocate it.'
'init all of the boundary values'
FirstValue = FirstVal
PrevLast = FirstValue - 1
NextFirst = FirstValue + WindowSize
LastValue = NextFirst - 1
'Initialize the Numbers prime factor arrays'
Dim i As Long
For i = 0 To WindowSize - 1
With Numbers(i)
.UnFactored = i + FirstValue 'initially equal to the number itself'
.Phi = 1 'starts at mulplicative identity(1)'
End With
Next
End Sub
Function PiMax(ByVal x As Long) As Long
'estimate of pi(n) == {primes <= (n)} that is never less'
' than the actual number of primes. (from P. Dusart, 1999)'
Return (x / Log(x)) * (1.0 + 1.2762 / Log(x))
End Function
End Class
Note that at O(N * Log(Log(N))), this routine is factoring each number at O(Log(Log(N))) on average which is much, much faster than the fastest single N factorization algorithms sited by some of the replies here. In fact, at N = 10^12 it is 2400 times faster!
I have tested this routine on my 2Ghz Intel Core 2 laptop and it computes over 3,000,000 Phi() values per second. At this speed, it would take you about 4 days to compute 10^12 values. I have also tested it for correctness up to 100,000,000 without any errors. It is based in 64-bit integers, so anything up to 2^63 (10^19) should be accurate (though too slow for anyone).
I also have a Visual Studio WinForm (also VB.net) for running/testing it, that I can provide if you want it.
Let me know if you have any questions.
As requested in the comments, I have added below a C# version of the code. However, because I am currently in the middle of some other projects, I do not have time to convert it myself, so I have used one of the online VB to C# conversion sites (http://www.carlosag.net/tools/codetranslator/). So be aware that this was auto-converted and I have not had time to test or check it myself yet.
using System.Math;
public class TotientSerialCalculator {
// Implements an extremely efficient Serial Totient(phi) calculator '
// This implements an optimized windowed Sieve of Eratosthenes. The'
// window size is set at Sqrt(N) both to optimize collecting and '
// applying all of the Primes below Sqrt(N), and to minimize '
// window-turning overhead. '
// '
// CPU complexity is O( N * Log(Log(N)) ), which is virtually linear.'
// '
// MEM Complexity is O( Sqrt(N) ). '
// '
// This is probalby the ideal combination, as any attempt to further '
// reduce memory will almost certainly result in disproportionate increases'
// in CPU complexity, and vice-versa. '
struct NumberFactors {
private long UnFactored; // the part of the number that still needs to be factored'
private long Phi;
}
private long ReportInterval;
private long PrevLast; // the last value in the previous window'
private long FirstValue; // the first value in this windows range'
private long WindowSize;
private long LastValue; // the last value in this windows range'
private long NextFirst; // the first value in the next window'
// Array that stores all of the NumberFactors in the current window.'
// this is the primary memory consumption for the class and it'
// is 16 * Sqrt(N) Bytes, which is O(Sqrt(N)).'
public NumberFactors[] Numbers;
// For N=10^12 (1 trilion), this will be 16MB, which should be bearable anywhere.'
// (note that the Primes() array is a secondary memory consumer'
// at O(pi(Sqrt(N)), which will be within 10x of O(Sqrt(N)))'
//NOTE: this part looks like it did not convert correctly
public event EventHandler EmitTotientPair;
private long k;
private long Phi;
// ===== The Routine To Call: ========================'
public void EmitTotientPairsToN(long N) {
// Routine to Emit Totient pairs {k, Phi(k)} for k = 1 to N'
// 2009-07-14, RBarryYoung, Created.'
long i;
long k;
// the current number being factored'
long p;
// the current prime factor'
// Establish the Window frame:'
// note: WindowSize is the critical value that controls both memory'
// usage and CPU consumption and must be SQRT(N) for it to work optimally.'
WindowSize = Ceiling(Sqrt(double.Parse(N)));
object Numbers;
this.MapWindow(1);
bool IsFirstWindow = true;
ReportInterval = (N / 100);
// Allocate the primes array to hold the primes list:'
// Only primes <= SQRT(N) are needed for factoring'
// PiMax(X) is a Max estimate of the number of primes <= X'
long[] Primes;
long PrimeIndex;
long NextPrime;
// init the primes list and its pointers'
object Primes;
-1;
Primes[0] = 2;
// "prime" the primes list with the first prime'
NextPrime = 1;
// Map (and Remap) the window with Sqrt(N) numbers, Sqrt(N) times to'
// sequentially map all of the numbers <= N.'
for (
; (FirstValue <= N);
) {
PrimeIndex = 0;
// note: cant use enumerator for the loop below because NextPrime'
// changes during the first window as new primes <= SQRT(N) are accumulated'
while ((PrimeIndex < NextPrime)) {
// get the next prime in the list'
p = Primes[PrimeIndex];
// find the first multiple of (p) in the current window range'
k = (PrevLast
+ (p
- (PrevLast % p)));
for (
; (k < NextFirst);
) {
// With...
UnFactored;
p;
// always works the first time'
(Phi
* (p - 1));
while (// TODO: Warning!!!! NULL EXPRESSION DETECTED...
) {
(UnFactored % p);
UnFactored;
(Phi * p);
}
// skip ahead to the next multiple of p: '
// (this is what makes it so fast, never have to try prime factors that dont apply)'
k = (k + p);
// repeat until we step out of the current window:'
}
// if this is the first window, then scan ahead for primes'
if (IsFirstWindow) {
for (i = (Primes[(NextPrime - 1)] + 1); (i
<= (p | (2 - 1))); i++) {
// the range of possible new primes'
// TODO: Warning!!! The operator should be an XOR ^ instead of an OR, but not available in CodeDOM
// Dont go beyond the first window'
if ((i >= WindowSize)) {
break;
}
if ((Numbers[(i - FirstValue)].UnFactored == i)) {
// this is a prime less than SQRT(N), so add it to the list.'
Primes[NextPrime] = i;
NextPrime++;
}
}
}
PrimeIndex++;
// move to the next prime'
}
// Now Finish & Emit each one'
for (k = FirstValue; (k <= LastValue); k++) {
// With...
// Primes larger than Sqrt(N) will not be finished: '
if ((Numbers[(k - FirstValue)].UnFactored > 1)) {
// Not done factoring, must be an large prime factor remaining: '
(Numbers[(k - FirstValue)].Phi * (Numbers[(k - FirstValue)].UnFactored - 1).UnFactored) = 1;
Numbers[(k - FirstValue)].Phi = 1;
}
// Emit the value pair: (k, Phi(k)) '
this.EmitPhi(k, Numbers[(k - FirstValue)].Phi);
}
// re-Map to the next window '
IsFirstWindow = false;
this.MapWindow(NextFirst);
}
}
void EmitPhi(long k, long Phi) {
// just a placeholder for now, that raises an event to the display form'
// periodically for reporting purposes. Change this to do the actual'
// emitting.'
if (((k % ReportInterval)
== 0)) {
EmitTotientPair(k, Phi);
}
}
public void MapWindow(long FirstVal) {
// Efficiently reset the window so that we do not have to re-allocate it.'
// init all of the boundary values'
FirstValue = FirstVal;
PrevLast = (FirstValue - 1);
NextFirst = (FirstValue + WindowSize);
LastValue = (NextFirst - 1);
// Initialize the Numbers prime factor arrays'
long i;
for (i = 0; (i
<= (WindowSize - 1)); i++) {
// With...
// initially equal to the number itself'
Phi = 1;
// starts at mulplicative identity(1)'
}
}
long PiMax(long x) {
// estimate of pi(n) == {primes <= (n)} that is never less'
// than the actual number of primes. (from P. Dusart, 1999)'
return ((x / Log(x)) * (1 + (1.2762 / Log(x))));
}
}

No one has found a faster way to calculate phi(k) (aka, Euler's totient function) than by first finding the prime factors of k. The world's best mathematicians have thrown many CPU cycles at the problem since 1977, since finding a faster way to solve this problem would create a weakness in the RSA public-key algorithm. (Both the public and the private key in RSA are calculated based on phi(n), where n is the product of two large primes.)

The computation of phi(k) has to be done using the prime factorization of k, which is the only sensible way of doing it. If you need a refresher on that, wikipedia carries the formula.
If you now have to compute all prime divisors of every number between 1 and a large N, you'll die of old age before seeing any result, so I'd go the other way around, i.e. build all numbers below N, using their possible prime factors, i.e. all primes less than or equal to N.
Your problem is therefore going to be similar to computing all divisors of a number, only you do not know what is the maximum number of times you may find a certain prime in the factorization beforehand. Tweaking an iterator originally written by Tim Peters on the python list (something I've blogged about...) to include the totient function, a possible implementation in python that yields k, phi(k) pairs could be as follows:
def composites(factors, N) :
"""
Generates all number-totient pairs below N, unordered, from the prime factors.
"""
ps = sorted(set(factors))
omega = len(ps)
def rec_gen(n = 0) :
if n == omega :
yield (1,1)
else :
pows = [(1,1)]
val = ps[n]
while val <= N :
pows += [(val, val - pows[-1][0])]
val *= ps[n]
for q, phi_q in rec_gen(n + 1) :
for p, phi_p in pows :
if p * q > N :
break
else :
yield p * q, phi_p * phi_q
for p in rec_gen() :
yield p
If you need help on computing all prime factors below N, I've also blogged about it... Keep in mind, though that computing all primes below 1012 is in itself quite a remarkable feat...

Is this from Project Euler 245? I remember that question, and I have given up on it.
The fastest way I found for calculating totient was to multiply the prime factors (p-1) together, given that k has no repeated factors (which was never the case if I remember the problem correctly).
So for calculating factors, it would probably be best to use gmpy.next_prime or pyecm (elliptic curve factorization).
You could also sieve the prime factors as Jaime suggests. For numbers up to 1012, the maximum prime factor is below 1 million which should be reasonable.
If you memoize factorizations, it could speed up your phi function even more.

For these kind of problems I'm using an iterator that returns for each integer m < N the list of primes < sqrt(N) that divide m. To implement such an iterator I'm using an array A of length R where R > sqrt(N). At each point the array A contains list of primes that divide integers m .. m+R-1. I.e. A[m % R] contains primes dividing m. Each prime p is in exactly one list, i.e. in A[m % R] for the smallest integer in the range m .. m+R-1 that is divisible by p. When generating the next element of the iterator simply the list in A[m % R] is returned. Then the list of primes are removed from A[m % R] and each prime p is appended to A[(m+p) % R].
With a list of primes < sqrt(N) dividing m it is easy to find the factorization of m, since there is at most one prime larger than sqrt(N).
This method has complexity O(N log(log(N))) under the assumption that all operations including list operations take O(1). The memory requirement is O(sqrt(N)).
There is unfortunately, some constant overhead here, hence I was looking for a more elegant way to generate the values phi(n), but so for I've not been successful.

Here's an efficient python generator. The caveat is that it doesn't yield the results in order. It is based on https://stackoverflow.com/a/10110008/412529 .
Memory complexity is O(log(N)) as it only has to store a list of prime factors for a single number at a time.
CPU complexity is just barely superlinear, something like O(N log log N).
def totientsbelow(N):
allprimes = primesbelow(N+1)
def rec(n, partialtot=1, min_p = 0):
for p in allprimes:
if p > n:
break
# avoid double solutions such as (6, [2,3]), and (6, [3,2])
if p < min_p: continue
yield (p, p-1, [p])
for t, tot2, r in rec(n//p, partialtot, min_p = p): # uses integer division
yield (t*p, tot2 * p if p == r[0] else tot2 * (p-1), [p] + r)
for n, t, factors in rec(N):
yield (n, t)

I think you can go the other way around. Instead of factorizing an integer k to get phi(k), you can attempt to generate all integers from 1 to N from primes and get phi(k) quickly. For example, if Pn is the maximum prime that is less than N, you can generate all integers less than N by
P1 i 1 * P2 i 2 * ... * Pn i n where each ij run from 0 to [log (N) / log (Pj)] ([] is the floor function).
That way, you can get phi(k) quickly wihout expensive prime factorization and still iterate through all k between 1 and N (not in order but I think you don't care about order).

Sieve the totients to n:
(define (totients n)
(let ((tots (make-vector (+ n 1))))
(do ((i 0 (+ i 1))) ((< n i))
(vector-set! tots i i))
(do ((i 2 (+ i 1))) ((< n i) tots)
(when (= i (vector-ref tots i))
(vector-set! tots i (- i 1))
(do ((j (+ i i) (+ i j))) ((< n j))
(vector-set! tots j
(* (vector-ref tots j) (- 1 (/ i)))))))))

This factorizes N = PQ, where P & Q are prime.
Works quite well, in Elixir or Erlang.
You can try different generators for your pseudo-random sequence. x*x + 1 is commonly used.
This line: defp f0(x, n), do: rem((x * x) + 1, n)
Other possible points of improvement: better or alternative gcd, rem and abs functions
defmodule Factorizer do
def factorize(n) do
t = System.system_time
x = pollard(n, 2_000_000, 2_000_000)
y = div(n, x)
p = min(x, y)
q = max(x, y)
t = System.system_time - t
IO.puts "
Factorized #{n}: into [#{p} , #{q}] in #{t} μs
"
{p, q}
end
defp gcd(a,0), do: a
defp gcd(a,b), do: gcd(b,rem(a,b))
defp pollard(n, a, b) do
a = f0(a, n)
b = f0(f0(b, n), n)
p = gcd(abs(b - a), n)
case p > 1 do
true -> p
false -> pollard(n, a, b)
end
end
defp f0(x, n), do: rem((x * x) + 1, n)
end

Related

Find final square in matrix walking like a spiral

Given the matrix A x A and a number of movements N.
And walking like a spiral:
right while possible, then
down while possible, then
left while possible, then
up while possible, repeat until got N.
Image with example (A = 8; N = 36)
In this example case, the final square is (4; 7).
My question is: Is it possible to use a generic formula to solve this?
Yes, it is possible to calculate the answer.
To do so, it will help to split up the problem into three parts.
(Note: I start counting at zero to simplify the math. This means that you'll have to add 1 to some parts of the answer. For instance, my answer to A = 8, N = 36 would be the final square (3; 6), which has the label 35.)
(Another note: this answer is quite similar to Nyavro's answer, except that I avoid the recursion here.)
In the first part, you calculate the labels on the diagonal:
(0; 0) has label 0.
(1; 1) has label 4*(A-1). The cycle can be evenly split into four parts (with your labels: 1..7, 8..14, 15..21, 22..27).
(2; 2) has label 4*(A-1) + 4*(A-3). After taking one cycle around the A x A matrix, your next cycle will be around a (A - 2) x (A - 2) matrix.
And so on. There are plenty of ways to now figure out the general rule for (K; K) (when 0 < K < A/2). I'll just pick the one that's easiest to show:
4*(A-1) + 4*(A-3) + 4*(A-5) + ... + 4*(A-(2*K-1)) =
4*A*K - 4*(1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2*K-1)) =
4*A*K - 4*(K + (0 + 2 + 4 + ... + (2*K-2))) =
4*A*K - 4*(K + 2*(0 + 1 + 2 + ... + (K-1))) =
4*A*K - 4*(K + 2*(K*(K-1)/2)) =
4*A*K - 4*(K + K*(K-1)) =
4*A*K - 4*(K + K*K - K) =
4*A*K - 4*K*K =
4*(A-K)*K
(Note: check that 4*(A-K)*K = 28 when A = 8 and K = 1. Compare this to the label at (2; 2) in your example.)
Now that we know what labels are on the diagonal, we can figure out how many layers (say K) we have to remove from our A x A matrix so that the final square is on the edge. If we do this, then answering our question
What are the coordinates (X; Y) when I take N steps in a A x A matrix?
can be done by calculating this K and instead solve the question
What are the coordinates (X - K; Y - K) when I take N - 4*(A-K)*K steps in a (A - 2*K) x (A - 2*K) matrix?
To do this, we should find the largest integer K such that K < A/2 and 4*(A-K)*K <= N.
The solution to this is K = floor(A/2 - sqrt(A*A-N)/2).
All that remains is to find out the coordinates of a square that is N along the edge of some A x A matrix:
if 0*E <= N < 1*E, the coordinates are (0; N);
if 1*E <= N < 2*E, the coordinates are (N - E; E);
if 2*E <= N < 3*E, the coordinates are (E; 3*E - N); and
if 3*E <= N < 4*E, the coordinates are (4*E - N; 0).
Here, E = A - 1.
To conclude, here is a naive (layerNumber gives incorrect answers for large values of a due to float inaccuracy) Haskell implementation of this answer:
finalSquare :: Integer -> Integer -> Maybe (Integer, Integer)
finalSquare a n
| Just (x', y') <- edgeSquare a' n' = Just (x' + k, y' + k)
| otherwise = Nothing
where
k = layerNumber a n
a' = a - 2*k
n' = n - 4*(a-k)*k
edgeSquare :: Integer -> Integer -> Maybe (Integer, Integer)
edgeSquare a n
| n < 1*e = Just (0, n)
| n < 2*e = Just (n - e, e)
| n < 3*e = Just (e, 3*e - n)
| n < 4*e = Just (4*e - n, 0)
| otherwise = Nothing
where
e = a - 1
layerNumber :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer
layerNumber a n = floor $ aa/2 - sqrt(aa*aa-nn)/2
where
aa = fromInteger a
nn = fromInteger n
Here is the possible solution:
f a n | n < (a-1)*1 = (0, n)
| n < (a-1)*2 = (n-(a-1), a-1)
| n < (a-1)*3 = (a-1, 3*(a-1)-n)
| n < (a-1)*4 = (4*(a-1)-n, 0)
| otherwise = add (1,1) (f (a-2) (n - 4*(a-1))) where
add (x1, y1) (x2, y2) = (x1+x2, y1+y2)
This is a basic solution, it may be generalized further - I just don't know how much generalization you need. So you can get the idea.
Edit
Notes:
The solution is for 0-based index
Some check for existence is required (n >= a*a)
I'm going to propose a relatively simple workaround here which generates all the indices in O(A^2) time so that they can later be accessed in O(1) for any N. If A changes, however, we would have to execute the algorithm again, which would once more consume O(A^2) time.
I suggest you use a structure like this to store the indices to access your matrix:
Coordinate[] indices = new Coordinate[A*A]
Where Coordinate is just a pair of int.
You can then fill your indices array by using some loops:
(This implementation uses 1-based array access. Correct expressions containing i, sentinel and currentDirection accordingly if this is an issue.)
Coordinate[] directions = { {1, 0}, {0, 1}, {-1, 0}, {0, -1} };
Coordinate c = new Coordinate(1, 1);
int currentDirection = 1;
int i = 1;
int sentinel = A;
int sentinelIncrement = A - 1;
boolean sentinelToggle = false;
while(i <= A * A) {
indices[i] = c;
if (i >= sentinel) {
if (sentinelToggle) {
sentinelIncrement -= 1;
}
sentinel += sentinelIncrement;
sentinelToggle = !sentinelToggle;
currentDirection = currentDirection mod 4 + 1;
}
c += directions[currentDirection];
i++;
}
Alright, off to the explanation: I'm using a variable called sentinel to keep track of where I need to switch directions (directions are simply switched by cycling through the array directions).
The value of sentinel is incremented in such a way that it always has the index of a corner in our spiral. In your example the sentinel would take on the values 8, 15, 22, 28, 34, 39... and so on.
Note that the index of "sentinel" increases twice by 7 (8, 15 = 8 + 7, 22 = 15 + 7), then by 6 (28 = 22 + 6, 34 = 28 + 6), then by 5 and so on. In my while loop I used the boolean sentinelToggle for this. Each time we hit a corner of the spiral (this is exactly iff i == sentinel, which is where the if-condition comes in) we increment the sentinel by sentinelIncrement and change the direction we're heading. If sentinel has been incremented twice by the same value, the if-condition if (sentinelToggle) will be true, so sentinelIncrement is decreased by one. We have to decrease sentinelIncrement because our spiral gets smaller as we go on.
This goes on as long as i <= A*A, that is, as long as our array indices has still entries that are zero.
Note that this does not give you a closed formula for a spiral coordinate in respect to N (which would be O(1) ); instead it generates the indices for all N which takes up O(A^2) time and after that guarantees access in O(1) by simply calling indices[N].
O(n^2) hopefully shouldn't hurt too badly because I'm assuming that you'll also need to fill your matrix at some point which also takes O(n^2).
If efficiency is a problem, consider getting rid off sentinelToggle so it doesn't mess up branch prediction. Instead, decrement sentinelIncrement every time the while condition is met. To get the same effect for your sentinel value, simply start sentinelIncrement at (A - 1) * 2 and every time the if-condition is met, execute:
sentinel += sentinelIncrement / 2
The integer division will have the same effect as only decreasing sentinelIncrement every second time. I didn't do this whole thing in my version because I think it might be more easily understandable with just a boolean value.
Hope this helps!

Finding the Nth Twin Prime

I was trying to solve a problem on SPOJ. We are required to calculate the nth twin prime pair( primes differing by 2). n can be as large as 10^5. I tried a precalculation using a sieve, I had to sieve up to 10^8 to get the maximum n twin prime, but the time limit is strict(2s) and it times out. I noticed people have solved it in 0.00 seconds, so i looked around for a formula on google, and couldnt get anything helpful. Could someone please guide me?
Thanks in advance!!
Out of curiosity, I solved the problem using two variants of a Sieve of Eratosthenes. The first variant completed on the testing machine in 0.93s and the second in 0.24s. For comparison, on my computer, the first finished in 0.08s and the second in 0.04s.
The first was a standard sieve on the odd numbers, the second a slightly more elaborate sieve omitting also the multiples of 3 in addition to the even numbers.
The testing machines of SPOJ are old and slow, so a programme runs much longer on them than on a typical recent box; and they have small caches, therefore it is important to keep the computation small.
Doing that, a Sieve of Eratosthenes is easily fast enough. However, it is really important to keep memory usage small. The first variant, using one byte per number, gave "Time limit exceeded" on SPOJ, but ran in 0.12s on my box. So, given the characteristics of the SPOJ testing machines, use a bit-sieve to solve it in the given time.
On the SPOJ machine, I got a significant speedup (running time 0.14s) by further reducing the space of the sieve by half. Since - except for the first pair (3,5) - all prime twins have the form (6*k-1, 6*k+1), and you need not know which of the two numbers is composite if k doesn't give rise to a twin prime pair, it is sufficient to sieve only the indices k.
(6*k + 1 is divisible by 5 if and only if k = 5*m + 4 for some m, and 6*k - 1 is divisible by 5 if and only if k = 5*m+1 for some m, so 5 would mark off 5*m ± 1, m >= 1 as not giving rise to twin primes. Similarly, 6*k+1 is divisible by 13 if and only if k = 13*m + 2 for some m and 6*k - 1 if and only if k = 13*m - 2 for some m, so 13 would mark off 13*m ± 2.)
This doesn't change the number of markings, so with a sufficiently large cache, the change in running time is small, but for small caches, it's a significant speedup.
One more thing, though. Your limit of 108 is way too high. I used a lower limit (20 million) that doesn't overestimate the 100,000th twin prime pair by so much. With a limit of 108, the first variant would certainly not have finished in time, the second probably not.
With the reduced limit, a Sieve of Atkin needs to be somewhat optimised to beat the Eratosthenes variant omitting even numbers and multiples of 3, a naive implementation will be significantly slower.
Some remarks concerning your (wikipedia's pseudocode) Atkin sieve:
#define limit 100000000
int prime1[MAXN];
int prime2[MAXN];
You don't need the second array, the larger partner of a prime twin pair can easily be computed from the smaller. You're wasting space and destroy cache locality reading from two arrays. (That's minor compared to the time needed for sieving, though.)
int root = ceil(sqrt(limit));
bool sieve[limit];
On many operating systems nowadays, that is an instant segfault, even with a reduced limit. The stack size is often limited to 8MB or less. Arrays of that size should be allocated on the heap.
As mentioned above, using one bool per number makes the programme run far slower than necessary. You should use a std::bitset or std::vector<bool> or twiddle the bits yourself. Also it is advisable to omit at least the even numbers.
for (int x = 1; x <= root; x++)
{
for (int y = 1; y <= root; y++)
{
//Main part of Sieve of Atkin
int n = (4*x*x)+(y*y);
if (n <= limit && (n % 12 == 1 || n % 12 == 5)) sieve[n] ^= true;
n = (3*x*x)+(y*y);
if (n <= limit && n % 12 == 7) sieve[n] ^= true;
n = (3*x*x)-(y*y);
if (x > y && n <= limit && n % 12 == 11) sieve[n] ^= true;
}
}
This is horribly inefficient. It tries far too many x-y-combinations, for each combination it does three or four divisions to check the remainder modulo 12 and it hops back and forth in the array.
Separate the different quadratics.
For 4*x^2 + y^2, it is evident that you need only consider x < sqrt(limit)/2 and odd y. Then the remainder modulo 12 is 1, 5, or 9. If the remainder is 9, then 4*x^2 + y^2 is actually a multiple of 9, so such a number would be eliminated as not square-free. However, it is preferable to omit the multiples of 3 from the sieve altogether and treat the cases n % 12 == 1 and n % 12 == 5 separately.
For 3*x^2 + y^2, it is evident that you need only consider x < sqrt(limit/3) and a little bit of thought reveals that x must be odd and y even (and not divisible by 3).
For 3*x^2 - y^2 with y < x, it is evident that you need only consider y < sqrt(limit/2). Looking at the remainders modulo 12, you see that y mustn't be divisible by 3 and x and y must have different parity.
I have got AC in 0.66s. As, there are solutions with 0.0s I assume better optimizations are possible, however, I describe my approach here.
I have used one basic optimization in Sieve of Eratosthenes. You know that 2 is the only even prime, using this you can reduce your computation time and memory for calculating primes by half.
Secondly, all the numbers which are twin primes will not be multiples of 2 and 3 (as they are primes!). So, those numbers will be of the form 6N+1 and 6N+5 (rest will not be primes for sure). 6N+5 = 6N+6-1 = 6(N+1)-1. So it can be seen that 6N+1 and 6N-1 can possibly be twin primes for N >= 1. So, you precompute all these values using the primes that you have calculated before. (Trivial case is 3 5)
Note: You don't need to calculate primes till 10^8, the upper limit is much lower.
[Edit: I can share my code if you want, but it would be better if you come up with a solution on your own. :)]
So basically, sieving up to 20,000,000 is enough, according to Wolfram Alpha. Use plain sieve of Eratosthenes, on odds, with vector<bool> in C++ (what language were you using BTW?).
Track the twin primes right inside the sieve loop. Store the lower prime of a pair in a separate vector as you find the twins, and if an out-of-order (smaller then previous) index is requested (and they are, contrary to the examples shown on the description page), just get the prime from this storage:
size_t n = 10000000, itop=2236;
vector<bool> s;
vector<int> twins;
s.resize(n, true);
int cnt, k1, k2, p1=3, p2, k=0;
cin >> cnt;
if( cnt-- > 0 )
{
cin >> k1;
for( size_t i=1; i < n; ++i ) // p=2i+1
{
if( s[i] )
{
p2 = 2*i+1;
if( p2-p1 == 2 ) { ++k; twins.push_back(p1); }
if( k==k1 )
{
cout << p1 << " " << p2 << endl;
......
etc. Got accept with 1.05 sec (0.18 sec on Ideone). Or untangle the logic - just pre-calculate 100,000 twin prime pairs right away, and access them in a separate loop afterwards (0.94 sec).
A description of an efficient algorithm to solve this can be found here # Programming Praxis entry Also, Scheme and Perl sample code are provided.
I precomputed a large list of primes using the Sieve of Eratosthenes, then iterated through the list counting items that were 2 less than their successor until finding n of them. Runs in 1.42 seconds at http://ideone.com/vYjuC. I too would like to know how to compute the answer in zero seconds.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#define ISBITSET(x, i) (( x[i>>3] & (1<<(i&7)) ) != 0)
#define SETBIT(x, i) x[i>>3] |= (1<<(i&7));
#define CLEARBIT(x, i) x[i>>3] &= (1<<(i&7)) ^ 0xFF;
typedef struct list {
int data;
struct list *next;
} List;
List *insert(int data, List *next)
{
List *new;
new = malloc(sizeof(List));
new->data = data;
new->next = next;
return new;
}
List *reverse(List *list) {
List *new = NULL;
List *next;
while (list != NULL)
{
next = list->next;
list->next = new;
new = list;
list = next;
}
return new;
}
int length(List *xs)
{
int len = 0;
while (xs != NULL)
{
len += 1;
xs = xs->next;
}
return len;
}
List *primes(int n)
{
int m = (n-1) / 2;
char b[m/8+1];
int i = 0;
int p = 3;
List *ps = NULL;
int j;
ps = insert(2, ps);
memset(b, 255, sizeof(b));
while (p*p < n)
{
if (ISBITSET(b,i))
{
ps = insert(p, ps);
j = (p*p - 3) / 2;
while (j < m)
{
CLEARBIT(b, j);
j += p;
}
}
i += 1; p += 2;
}
while (i < m)
{
if (ISBITSET(b,i))
{
ps = insert(p, ps);
}
i += 1; p += 2;
}
return reverse(ps);
}
int nth_twin(int n, List *ps)
{
while (ps->next != NULL)
{
if (n == 0)
{
return ps->data - 1;
}
if (ps->next->data - ps->data == 2)
{
--n;
}
ps = ps->next;
}
return 0;
}
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
List *ps = primes(100000000);
printf("%d\n", nth_twin(100000, ps));
return 0;
}
this is what I have attempted. I have a string of TLEs.
bool mark [N];
vector <int> primeList;
void sieve ()
{
memset (mark, true, sizeof (mark));
mark [0] = mark [1] = false;
for ( int i = 4; i < N; i += 2 )
mark [i] = false;
for ( int i = 3; i * i <= N; i++ )
{
if ( mark [i] )
{
for ( int j = i * i; j < N; j += 2 * i )
mark [j] = false;
}
}
primeList.clear ();
primeList.push_back (2);
for ( int i = 3; i < N; i += 2 )
{
if ( mark [i] )
primeList.push_back (i);
}
//printf ("%d\n", primeList.size ());
}
int main ()
{
sieve ();
vector <int> twinPrime;
for ( size_t i = 1; i < primeList.size (); i++ )
{
if ( primeList [i] - primeList [i - 1] == 2 )
twinPrime.push_back (primeList [i - 1]);
}
int t;
scanf("%d",&t);
int s;
while ( t-- )
{
scanf("%d",&s);
printf ("%d %d\n", twinPrime [s - 1], twinPrime [s - 1] + 2);
}
return 0;
}
Here is a procedure that could answer your question:
Prime numbers that, when divided by 3, have equal quotients when corrected to decimal 0 (zero) are Twin Primes.
This can be written as
For any pair of prime numbers Px, Py, if [Px/3, 0] = [Py/3, 0] then Px and Py are Prime Twins.
The basis for this is that if prime numbers differ by 2, then dividing the all the prime numbers of interest will yield unique equal quotients when the quotients are corrected to decimal zero. Primes that are not separated by 2 will not have equal quotients when corrected to decimal zero.
For example:
• 11, 13 when divided by 3 will yield unique the unique quotient of 4 when the quotient is corrected to decimal zero.
• 17, 19 when divided by 3 will yield the unique quotient of 6 when the quotient is corrected to decimal zero.
• 29, 31 when divided by 3 will yield the unique quotient of 10 when the quotient is corrected to decimal zero.
Etc.
Below is a simple procedure using Excel to:
• Find prime twins from any list of primes
• Find twin primes in any range of primes
• Find the largest prime twin prime
• Find gaps between twin primes
Import Kutools into Excel
List prime numbers of interest into column 1.
Insert divisor 3 in column 2 - fill down to the level of the largest prime on the list in column 1.
Divide the first row of column 1 by the first row of column 2 and place the quotient in column 3
Fill down column 3 to the level of the largest prime number on the list in column 1.
Correct to zero decimal. Keep the numbers column 3 (quotients) selected.
From “Conditional formatting’ - Select "duplicate values" from the menu
Go to Kutools and select 'to actual' - This will highlight the cells of all the twin pairs scattered in the Quotient column 3.
Select the quotients in column 3
Select 'Sort and Filter' in Excel
Select 'Custom Sort'
Fill in the menu (For values chose the highlighted color in the quotient column) and and click ‘OK”.
The twin primes will be grouped together in the column.
This list can then be used to find the gaps between primes.
To find the largest twin prime use the above procedure with a range of the largest known prime into column 1 (e.g. the highest 10k primes).
If a prime twin is not found in this range, then go to the next lowest range until a twin prime is found. This will be the largest twin prime.
Hope this helps.

Find the smallest regular number that is not less than N

Regular numbers are numbers that evenly divide powers of 60. As an example, 602 = 3600 = 48 × 75, so both 48 and 75 are divisors of a power of 60. Thus, they are also regular numbers.
This is an extension of rounding up to the next power of two.
I have an integer value N which may contain large prime factors and I want to round it up to a number composed of only small prime factors (2, 3 and 5)
Examples:
f(18) == 18 == 21 * 32
f(19) == 20 == 22 * 51
f(257) == 270 == 21 * 33 * 51
What would be an efficient way to find the smallest number satisfying this requirement?
The values involved may be large, so I would like to avoid enumerating all regular numbers starting from 1 or maintaining an array of all possible values.
One can produce arbitrarily thin a slice of the Hamming sequence around the n-th member in time ~ n^(2/3) by direct enumeration of triples (i,j,k) such that N = 2^i * 3^j * 5^k.
The algorithm works from log2(N) = i+j*log2(3)+k*log2(5); enumerates all possible ks and for each, all possible js, finds the top i and thus the triple (k,j,i) and keeps it in a "band" if inside the given "width" below the given high logarithmic top value (when width < 1 there can be at most one such i) then sorts them by their logarithms.
WP says that n ~ (log N)^3, i.e. run time ~ (log N)^2. Here we don't care for the exact position of the found triple in the sequence, so all the count calculations from the original code can be thrown away:
slice hi w = sortBy (compare `on` fst) b where -- hi>log2(N) is a top value
lb5=logBase 2 5 ; lb3=logBase 2 3 -- w<1 (NB!) is log2(width)
b = concat -- the slice
[ [ (r,(i,j,k)) | frac < w ] -- store it, if inside width
| k <- [ 0 .. floor ( hi /lb5) ], let p = fromIntegral k*lb5,
j <- [ 0 .. floor ((hi-p)/lb3) ], let q = fromIntegral j*lb3 + p,
let (i,frac)=properFraction(hi-q) ; r = hi - frac ] -- r = i + q
-- properFraction 12.7 == (12, 0.7)
-- update: in pseudocode:
def slice(hi, w):
lb5, lb3 = logBase(2, 5), logBase(2, 3) -- logs base 2 of 5 and 3
for k from 0 step 1 to floor(hi/lb5) inclusive:
p = k*lb5
for j from 0 step 1 to floor((hi-p)/lb3) inclusive:
q = j*lb3 + p
i = floor(hi-q)
frac = hi-q-i -- frac < 1 , always
r = hi - frac -- r == i + q
if frac < w:
place (r,(i,j,k)) into the output array
sort the output array's entries by their "r" component
in ascending order, and return thus sorted array
Having enumerated the triples in the slice, it is a simple matter of sorting and searching, taking practically O(1) time (for arbitrarily thin a slice) to find the first triple above N. Well, actually, for constant width (logarithmic), the amount of numbers in the slice (members of the "upper crust" in the (i,j,k)-space below the log(N) plane) is again m ~ n^2/3 ~ (log N)^2 and sorting takes m log m time (so that searching, even linear, takes ~ m run time then). But the width can be made smaller for bigger Ns, following some empirical observations; and constant factors for the enumeration of triples are much higher than for the subsequent sorting anyway.
Even with constant width (logarthmic) it runs very fast, calculating the 1,000,000-th value in the Hamming sequence instantly and the billionth in 0.05s.
The original idea of "top band of triples" is due to Louis Klauder, as cited in my post on a DDJ blogs discussion back in 2008.
update: as noted by GordonBGood in the comments, there's no need for the whole band but rather just about one or two values above and below the target. The algorithm is easily amended to that effect. The input should also be tested for being a Hamming number itself before proceeding with the algorithm, to avoid round-off issues with double precision. There are no round-off issues comparing the logarithms of the Hamming numbers known in advance to be different (though going up to a trillionth entry in the sequence uses about 14 significant digits in logarithm values, leaving only 1-2 digits to spare, so the situation may in fact be turning iffy there; but for 1-billionth we only need 11 significant digits).
update2: turns out the Double precision for logarithms limits this to numbers below about 20,000 to 40,000 decimal digits (i.e. 10 trillionth to 100 trillionth Hamming number). If there's a real need for this for such big numbers, the algorithm can be switched back to working with the Integer values themselves instead of their logarithms, which will be slower.
Okay, hopefully third time's a charm here. A recursive, branching algorithm for an initial input of p, where N is the number being 'built' within each thread. NB 3a-c here are launched as separate threads or otherwise done (quasi-)asynchronously.
Calculate the next-largest power of 2 after p, call this R. N = p.
Is N > R? Quit this thread. Is p composed of only small prime factors? You're done. Otherwise, go to step 3.
After any of 3a-c, go to step 4.
a) Round p up to the nearest multiple of 2. This number can be expressed as m * 2.
b) Round p up to the nearest multiple of 3. This number can be expressed as m * 3.
c) Round p up to the nearest multiple of 5. This number can be expressed as m * 5.
Go to step 2, with p = m.
I've omitted the bookkeeping to do regarding keeping track of N but that's fairly straightforward I take it.
Edit: Forgot 6, thanks ypercube.
Edit 2: Had this up to 30, (5, 6, 10, 15, 30) realized that was unnecessary, took that out.
Edit 3: (The last one I promise!) Added the power-of-30 check, which helps prevent this algorithm from eating up all your RAM.
Edit 4: Changed power-of-30 to power-of-2, per finnw's observation.
Here's a solution in Python, based on Will Ness answer but taking some shortcuts and using pure integer math to avoid running into log space numerical accuracy errors:
import math
def next_regular(target):
"""
Find the next regular number greater than or equal to target.
"""
# Check if it's already a power of 2 (or a non-integer)
try:
if not (target & (target-1)):
return target
except TypeError:
# Convert floats/decimals for further processing
target = int(math.ceil(target))
if target <= 6:
return target
match = float('inf') # Anything found will be smaller
p5 = 1
while p5 < target:
p35 = p5
while p35 < target:
# Ceiling integer division, avoiding conversion to float
# (quotient = ceil(target / p35))
# From https://stackoverflow.com/a/17511341/125507
quotient = -(-target // p35)
# Quickly find next power of 2 >= quotient
# See https://stackoverflow.com/a/19164783/125507
try:
p2 = 2**((quotient - 1).bit_length())
except AttributeError:
# Fallback for Python <2.7
p2 = 2**(len(bin(quotient - 1)) - 2)
N = p2 * p35
if N == target:
return N
elif N < match:
match = N
p35 *= 3
if p35 == target:
return p35
if p35 < match:
match = p35
p5 *= 5
if p5 == target:
return p5
if p5 < match:
match = p5
return match
In English: iterate through every combination of 5s and 3s, quickly finding the next power of 2 >= target for each pair and keeping the smallest result. (It's a waste of time to iterate through every possible multiple of 2 if only one of them can be correct). It also returns early if it ever finds that the target is already a regular number, though this is not strictly necessary.
I've tested it pretty thoroughly, testing every integer from 0 to 51200000 and comparing to the list on OEIS http://oeis.org/A051037, as well as many large numbers that are ±1 from regular numbers, etc. It's now available in SciPy as fftpack.helper.next_fast_len, to find optimal sizes for FFTs (source code).
I'm not sure if the log method is faster because I couldn't get it to work reliably enough to test it. I think it has a similar number of operations, though? I'm not sure, but this is reasonably fast. Takes <3 seconds (or 0.7 second with gmpy) to calculate that 2142 × 380 × 5444 is the next regular number above 22 × 3454 × 5249+1 (the 100,000,000th regular number, which has 392 digits)
You want to find the smallest number m that is m >= N and m = 2^i * 3^j * 5^k where all i,j,k >= 0.
Taking logarithms the equations can be rewritten as:
log m >= log N
log m = i*log2 + j*log3 + k*log5
You can calculate log2, log3, log5 and logN to (enough high, depending on the size of N) accuracy. Then this problem looks like a Integer Linear programming problem and you could try to solve it using one of the known algorithms for this NP-hard problem.
EDITED/CORRECTED: Corrected the codes to pass the scipy tests:
Here's an answer based on endolith's answer, but almost eliminating long multi-precision integer calculations by using float64 logarithm representations to do a base comparison to find triple values that pass the criteria, only resorting to full precision comparisons when there is a chance that the logarithm value may not be accurate enough, which only occurs when the target is very close to either the previous or the next regular number:
import math
def next_regulary(target):
"""
Find the next regular number greater than or equal to target.
"""
if target < 2: return ( 0, 0, 0 )
log2hi = 0
mant = 0
# Check if it's already a power of 2 (or a non-integer)
try:
mant = target & (target - 1)
target = int(target) # take care of case where not int/float/decimal
except TypeError:
# Convert floats/decimals for further processing
target = int(math.ceil(target))
mant = target & (target - 1)
# Quickly find next power of 2 >= target
# See https://stackoverflow.com/a/19164783/125507
try:
log2hi = target.bit_length()
except AttributeError:
# Fallback for Python <2.7
log2hi = len(bin(target)) - 2
# exit if this is a power of two already...
if not mant: return ( log2hi - 1, 0, 0 )
# take care of trivial cases...
if target < 9:
if target < 4: return ( 0, 1, 0 )
elif target < 6: return ( 0, 0, 1 )
elif target < 7: return ( 1, 1, 0 )
else: return ( 3, 0, 0 )
# find log of target, which may exceed the float64 limit...
if log2hi < 53: mant = target << (53 - log2hi)
else: mant = target >> (log2hi - 53)
log2target = log2hi + math.log2(float(mant) / (1 << 53))
# log2 constants
log2of2 = 1.0; log2of3 = math.log2(3); log2of5 = math.log2(5)
# calculate range of log2 values close to target;
# desired number has a logarithm of log2target <= x <= top...
fctr = 6 * log2of3 * log2of5
top = (log2target**3 + 2 * fctr)**(1/3) # for up to 2 numbers higher
btm = 2 * log2target - top # or up to 2 numbers lower
match = log2hi # Anything found will be smaller
result = ( log2hi, 0, 0 ) # placeholder for eventual matches
count = 0 # only used for debugging counting band
fives = 0; fiveslmt = int(math.ceil(top / log2of5))
while fives < fiveslmt:
log2p = top - fives * log2of5
threes = 0; threeslmt = int(math.ceil(log2p / log2of3))
while threes < threeslmt:
log2q = log2p - threes * log2of3
twos = int(math.floor(log2q)); log2this = top - log2q + twos
if log2this >= btm: count += 1 # only used for counting band
if log2this >= btm and log2this < match:
# logarithm precision may not be enough to differential between
# the next lower regular number and the target, so do
# a full resolution comparison to eliminate this case...
if (2**twos * 3**threes * 5**fives) >= target:
match = log2this; result = ( twos, threes, fives )
threes += 1
fives += 1
return result
print(next_regular(2**2 * 3**454 * 5**249 + 1)) # prints (142, 80, 444)
Since most long multi-precision calculations have been eliminated, gmpy isn't needed, and on IDEOne the above code takes 0.11 seconds instead of 0.48 seconds for endolith's solution to find the next regular number greater than the 100 millionth one as shown; it takes 0.49 seconds instead of 5.48 seconds to find the next regular number past the billionth (next one is (761,572,489) past (1334,335,404) + 1), and the difference will get even larger as the range goes up as the multi-precision calculations get increasingly longer for the endolith version compared to almost none here. Thus, this version could calculate the next regular number from the trillionth in the sequence in about 50 seconds on IDEOne, where it would likely take over an hour with the endolith version.
The English description of the algorithm is almost the same as for the endolith version, differing as follows:
1) calculates the float log estimation of the argument target value (we can't use the built-in log function directly as the range may be much too large for representation as a 64-bit float),
2) compares the log representation values in determining qualifying values inside an estimated range above and below the target value of only about two or three numbers (depending on round-off),
3) compare multi-precision values only if within the above defined narrow band,
4) outputs the triple indices rather than the full long multi-precision integer (would be about 840 decimal digits for the one past the billionth, ten times that for the trillionth), which can then easily be converted to the long multi-precision value if required.
This algorithm uses almost no memory other than for the potentially very large multi-precision integer target value, the intermediate evaluation comparison values of about the same size, and the output expansion of the triples if required. This algorithm is an improvement over the endolith version in that it successfully uses the logarithm values for most comparisons in spite of their lack of precision, and that it narrows the band of compared numbers to just a few.
This algorithm will work for argument ranges somewhat above ten trillion (a few minute's calculation time at IDEOne rates) when it will no longer be correct due to lack of precision in the log representation values as per #WillNess's discussion; in order to fix this, we can change the log representation to a "roll-your-own" logarithm representation consisting of a fixed-length integer (124 bits for about double the exponent range, good for targets of over a hundred thousand digits if one is willing to wait); this will be a little slower due to the smallish multi-precision integer operations being slower than float64 operations, but not that much slower since the size is limited (maybe a factor of three or so slower).
Now none of these Python implementations (without using C or Cython or PyPy or something) are particularly fast, as they are about a hundred times slower than as implemented in a compiled language. For reference sake, here is a Haskell version:
{-# OPTIONS_GHC -O3 #-}
import Data.Word
import Data.Bits
nextRegular :: Integer -> ( Word32, Word32, Word32 )
nextRegular target
| target < 2 = ( 0, 0, 0 )
| target .&. (target - 1) == 0 = ( fromIntegral lg2hi - 1, 0, 0 )
| target < 9 = case target of
3 -> ( 0, 1, 0 )
5 -> ( 0, 0, 1 )
6 -> ( 1, 1, 0 )
_ -> ( 3, 0, 0 )
| otherwise = match
where
lg3 = logBase 2 3 :: Double; lg5 = logBase 2 5 :: Double
lg2hi = let cntplcs v cnt =
let nv = v `shiftR` 31 in
if nv <= 0 then
let cntbts x c =
if x <= 0 then c else
case c + 1 of
nc -> nc `seq` cntbts (x `shiftR` 1) nc in
cntbts (fromIntegral v :: Word32) cnt
else case cnt + 31 of ncnt -> ncnt `seq` cntplcs nv ncnt
in cntplcs target 0
lg2tgt = let mant = if lg2hi <= 53 then target `shiftL` (53 - lg2hi)
else target `shiftR` (lg2hi - 53)
in fromIntegral lg2hi +
logBase 2 (fromIntegral mant / 2^53 :: Double)
lg2top = (lg2tgt^3 + 2 * 6 * lg3 * lg5)**(1/3) -- for 2 numbers or so higher
lg2btm = 2* lg2tgt - lg2top -- or two numbers or so lower
match =
let klmt = floor (lg2top / lg5)
loopk k mtchlgk mtchtplk =
if k > klmt then mtchtplk else
let p = lg2top - fromIntegral k * lg5
jlmt = fromIntegral $ floor (p / lg3)
loopj j mtchlgj mtchtplj =
if j > jlmt then loopk (k + 1) mtchlgj mtchtplj else
let q = p - fromIntegral j * lg3
( i, frac ) = properFraction q; r = lg2top - frac
( nmtchlg, nmtchtpl ) =
if r < lg2btm || r >= mtchlgj then
( mtchlgj, mtchtplj ) else
if 2^i * 3^j * 5^k >= target then
( r, ( i, j, k ) ) else ( mtchlgj, mtchtplj )
in nmtchlg `seq` nmtchtpl `seq` loopj (j + 1) nmtchlg nmtchtpl
in loopj 0 mtchlgk mtchtplk
in loopk 0 (fromIntegral lg2hi) ( fromIntegral lg2hi, 0, 0 )
trival :: ( Word32, Word32, Word32 ) -> Integer
trival (i,j,k) = 2^i * 3^j * 5^k
main = putStrLn $ show $ nextRegular $ (trival (1334,335,404)) + 1 -- (1126,16930,40)
This code calculates the next regular number following the billionth in too small a time to be measured and following the trillionth in 0.69 seconds on IDEOne (and potentially could run even faster except that IDEOne doesn't support LLVM). Even Julia will run at something like this Haskell speed after the "warm-up" for JIT compilation.
EDIT_ADD: The Julia code is as per the following:
function nextregular(target :: BigInt) :: Tuple{ UInt32, UInt32, UInt32 }
# trivial case of first value or anything less...
target < 2 && return ( 0, 0, 0 )
# Check if it's already a power of 2 (or a non-integer)
mant = target & (target - 1)
# Quickly find next power of 2 >= target
log2hi :: UInt32 = 0
test = target
while true
next = test & 0x7FFFFFFF
test >>>= 31; log2hi += 31
test <= 0 && (log2hi -= leading_zeros(UInt32(next)) - 1; break)
end
# exit if this is a power of two already...
mant == 0 && return ( log2hi - 1, 0, 0 )
# take care of trivial cases...
if target < 9
target < 4 && return ( 0, 1, 0 )
target < 6 && return ( 0, 0, 1 )
target < 7 && return ( 1, 1, 0 )
return ( 3, 0, 0 )
end
# find log of target, which may exceed the Float64 limit...
if log2hi < 53 mant = target << (53 - log2hi)
else mant = target >>> (log2hi - 53) end
log2target = log2hi + log(2, Float64(mant) / (1 << 53))
# log2 constants
log2of2 = 1.0; log2of3 = log(2, 3); log2of5 = log(2, 5)
# calculate range of log2 values close to target;
# desired number has a logarithm of log2target <= x <= top...
fctr = 6 * log2of3 * log2of5
top = (log2target^3 + 2 * fctr)^(1/3) # for 2 numbers or so higher
btm = 2 * log2target - top # or 2 numbers or so lower
# scan for values in the given narrow range that satisfy the criteria...
match = log2hi # Anything found will be smaller
result :: Tuple{UInt32,UInt32,UInt32} = ( log2hi, 0, 0 ) # placeholder for eventual matches
fives :: UInt32 = 0; fiveslmt = UInt32(ceil(top / log2of5))
while fives < fiveslmt
log2p = top - fives * log2of5
threes :: UInt32 = 0; threeslmt = UInt32(ceil(log2p / log2of3))
while threes < threeslmt
log2q = log2p - threes * log2of3
twos = UInt32(floor(log2q)); log2this = top - log2q + twos
if log2this >= btm && log2this < match
# logarithm precision may not be enough to differential between
# the next lower regular number and the target, so do
# a full resolution comparison to eliminate this case...
if (big(2)^twos * big(3)^threes * big(5)^fives) >= target
match = log2this; result = ( twos, threes, fives )
end
end
threes += 1
end
fives += 1
end
result
end
Here's another possibility I just thought of:
If N is X bits long, then the smallest regular number R ≥ N will be in the range
[2X-1, 2X]
e.g. if N = 257 (binary 100000001) then we know R is 1xxxxxxxx unless R is exactly equal to the next power of 2 (512)
To generate all the regular numbers in this range, we can generate the odd regular numbers (i.e. multiples of powers of 3 and 5) first, then take each value and multiply by 2 (by bit-shifting) as many times as necessary to bring it into this range.
In Python:
from itertools import ifilter, takewhile
from Queue import PriorityQueue
def nextPowerOf2(n):
p = max(1, n)
while p != (p & -p):
p += p & -p
return p
# Generate multiples of powers of 3, 5
def oddRegulars():
q = PriorityQueue()
q.put(1)
prev = None
while not q.empty():
n = q.get()
if n != prev:
prev = n
yield n
if n % 3 == 0:
q.put(n // 3 * 5)
q.put(n * 3)
# Generate regular numbers with the same number of bits as n
def regularsCloseTo(n):
p = nextPowerOf2(n)
numBits = len(bin(n))
for i in takewhile(lambda x: x <= p, oddRegulars()):
yield i << max(0, numBits - len(bin(i)))
def nextRegular(n):
bigEnough = ifilter(lambda x: x >= n, regularsCloseTo(n))
return min(bigEnough)
You know what? I'll put money on the proposition that actually, the 'dumb' algorithm is fastest. This is based on the observation that the next regular number does not, in general, seem to be much larger than the given input. So simply start counting up, and after each increment, refactor and see if you've found a regular number. But create one processing thread for each available core you have, and for N cores have each thread examine every Nth number. When each thread has found a number or crossed the power-of-2 threshold, compare the results (keep a running best number) and there you are.
I wrote a small c# program to solve this problem. It's not very optimised but it's a start.
This solution is pretty fast for numbers as big as 11 digits.
private long GetRegularNumber(long n)
{
long result = n - 1;
long quotient = result;
while (quotient > 1)
{
result++;
quotient = result;
quotient = RemoveFactor(quotient, 2);
quotient = RemoveFactor(quotient, 3);
quotient = RemoveFactor(quotient, 5);
}
return result;
}
private static long RemoveFactor(long dividend, long divisor)
{
long remainder = 0;
long quotient = dividend;
while (remainder == 0)
{
dividend = quotient;
quotient = Math.DivRem(dividend, divisor, out remainder);
}
return dividend;
}

Adding values in various combinations

Not sure how best to explain it, other than using an example...
Imagine having a client with 10 outstanding invoices, and one day they provide you with a cheque, but do not tell you which invoices it's for.
What would be the best way to return all the possible combination of values which can produce the required total?
My current thinking is a kind of brute force method, which involves using a self-calling function that runs though all the possibilities (see current version).
For example, with 3 numbers, there are 15 ways to add them together:
A
A + B
A + B + C
A + C
A + C + B
B
B + A
B + A + C
B + C
B + C + A
C
C + A
C + A + B
C + B
C + B + A
Which, if you remove the duplicates, give you 7 unique ways to add them together:
A
A + B
A + B + C
A + C
B
B + C
C
However, this kind of falls apart after you have:
15 numbers (32,767 possibilities / ~2 seconds to calculate)
16 numbers (65,535 possibilities / ~6 seconds to calculate)
17 numbers (131,071 possibilities / ~9 seconds to calculate)
18 numbers (262,143 possibilities / ~20 seconds to calculate)
Where, I would like this function to handle at least 100 numbers.
So, any ideas on how to improve it? (in any language)
This is a pretty common variation of the subset sum problem, and it is indeed quite hard. The section on the Pseudo-polynomial time dynamic programming solution on the page linked is what you're after.
This is strictly for the number of possibilities and does not consider overlap. I am unsure what you want.
Consider the states that any single value could be at one time - it could either be included or excluded. That is two different states so the number of different states for all n items will be 2^n. However there is one state that is not wanted; that state is when none of the numbers are included.
And thus, for any n numbers, the number of combinations is equal to 2^n-1.
def setNumbers(n): return 2**n-1
print(setNumbers(15))
These findings are very closely related to combinations and permutations.
Instead, though, I think you may be after telling whether given a set of values any combination of them sum to a value k. For this Bill the Lizard pointed you in the right direction.
Following from that, and bearing in mind I haven't read the whole Wikipedia article, I propose this algorithm in Python:
def combs(arr):
r = set()
for i in range(len(arr)):
v = arr[i]
new = set()
new.add(v)
for a in r: new.add(a+v)
r |= new
return r
def subsetSum(arr, val):
middle = len(arr)//2
seta = combs(arr[:middle])
setb = combs(arr[middle:])
for a in seta:
if (val-a) in setb:
return True
return False
print(subsetSum([2, 3, 5, 8, 9], 8))
Basically the algorithm works as this:
Splits the list into 2 lists of approximately half the length. [O(n)]
Finds the set of subset sums. [O(2n/2 n)]
Loops through the first set of up to 2floor(n/2)-1 values seeing if the another value in the second set would total to k. [O(2n/2 n)]
So I think overall it runs in O(2n/2 n) - still pretty slow but much better.
Sounds like a bin packing problem. Those are NP-complete, i.e. it's nearly impossible to find a perfect solution for large problem sets. But you can get pretty close using heuristics, which are probably applicable to your problem even if it's not strictly a bin packing problem.
This is a variant on a similar problem.
But you can solve this by creating a counter with n bits. Where n is the amount of numbers. Then you count from 000 to 111 (n 1's) and for each number a 1 is equivalent to an available number:
001 = A
010 = B
011 = A+B
100 = C
101 = A+C
110 = B+C
111 = A+B+C
(But that was not the question, ah well I leave it as a target).
It's not strictly a bin packing problem. It's a what combination of values could have produced another value.
It's more like the change making problem, which has a bunch of papers detailing how to solve it. Google pointed me here: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.57.3243
I don't know how often it would work in practice as there are many exceptions to this oversimplified case, but here's a thought:
In a perfect world, the invoices are going to be paid up to a certain point. People will pay A, or A+B, or A+B+C, but not A+C - if they've received invoice C then they've received invoice B already. In the perfect world the problem is not to find to a combination, it's to find a point along a line.
Rather than brute forcing every combination of invoice totals, you could iterate through the outstanding invoices in order of date issued, and simply add each invoice amount to a running total which you compare with the target figure.
Back in the real world, it's a trivially quick check you can do before launching into the heavy number-crunching, or chasing them up. Any hits it gets are a bonus :)
Here is an optimized Object-Oriented version of the exact integer solution to the Subset Sums problem(Horowitz, Sahni 1974). On my laptop (which is nothing special) this vb.net Class solves 1900 subset sums a second (for 20 items):
Option Explicit On
Public Class SubsetSum
'Class to solve exact integer Subset Sum problems'
''
' 06-sep-09 RBarryYoung Created.'
Dim Power2() As Integer = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, 8192, 16384, 32764}
Public ForceMatch As Boolean
Public watch As New Stopwatch
Public w0 As Integer, w1 As Integer, w1a As Integer, w2 As Integer, w3 As Integer, w4 As Integer
Public Function SolveMany(ByVal ItemCount As Integer, ByVal Range As Integer, ByVal Iterations As Integer) As Integer
' Solve many subset sum problems in sequence.'
''
' 06-sep-09 RBarryYoung Created.'
Dim TotalFound As Integer
Dim Items() As Integer
ReDim Items(ItemCount - 1)
'First create our list of selectable items:'
Randomize()
For item As Integer = 0 To Items.GetUpperBound(0)
Items(item) = Rnd() * Range
Next
For iteration As Integer = 1 To Iterations
Dim TargetSum As Integer
If ForceMatch Then
'Use a random value but make sure that it can be matched:'
' First, make a random bitmask to use:'
Dim bits As Integer = Rnd() * (2 ^ (Items.GetUpperBound(0) + 1) - 1)
' Now enumerate the bits and match them to the Items:'
Dim sum As Integer = 0
For b As Integer = 0 To Items.GetUpperBound(0)
'build the sum from the corresponding items:'
If b < 16 Then
If Power2(b) = (bits And Power2(b)) Then
sum = sum + Items(b)
End If
Else
If Power2(b - 15) * Power2(15) = (bits And (Power2(b - 15) * Power2(15))) Then
sum = sum + Items(b)
End If
End If
Next
TargetSum = sum
Else
'Use a completely random Target Sum (low chance of matching): (Range / 2^ItemCount)'
TargetSum = ((Rnd() * Range / 4) + Range * (3.0 / 8.0)) * ItemCount
End If
'Now see if there is a match'
If SolveOne(TargetSum, ItemCount, Range, Items) Then TotalFound += 1
Next
Return TotalFound
End Function
Public Function SolveOne(ByVal TargetSum As Integer, ByVal ItemCount As Integer _
, ByVal Range As Integer, ByRef Items() As Integer) As Boolean
' Solve a single Subset Sum problem: determine if the TargetSum can be made from'
'the integer items.'
'first split the items into two half-lists: [O(n)]'
Dim H1() As Integer, H2() As Integer
Dim hu1 As Integer, hu2 As Integer
If ItemCount Mod 2 = 0 Then
'even is easy:'
hu1 = (ItemCount / 2) - 1 : hu2 = (ItemCount / 2) - 1
ReDim H1((ItemCount / 2) - 1), H2((ItemCount / 2) - 1)
Else
'odd is a little harder, give the first half the extra item:'
hu1 = ((ItemCount + 1) / 2) - 1 : hu2 = ((ItemCount - 1) / 2) - 1
ReDim H1(hu1), H2(hu2)
End If
For i As Integer = 0 To ItemCount - 1 Step 2
H1(i / 2) = Items(i)
'make sure that H2 doesnt run over on the last item of an odd-numbered list:'
If (i + 1) <= ItemCount - 1 Then
H2(i / 2) = Items(i + 1)
End If
Next
'Now generate all of the sums for each half-list: [O( 2^(n/2) * n )] **(this is the slowest step)'
Dim S1() As Integer, S2() As Integer
Dim sum1 As Integer, sum2 As Integer
Dim su1 As Integer = 2 ^ (hu1 + 1) - 1, su2 As Integer = 2 ^ (hu2 + 1) - 1
ReDim S1(su1), S2(su2)
For i As Integer = 0 To su1
' Use the binary bitmask of our enumerator(i) to select items to use in our candidate sums:'
sum1 = 0 : sum2 = 0
For b As Integer = 0 To hu1
If 0 < (i And Power2(b)) Then
sum1 += H1(b)
If i <= su2 Then sum2 += H2(b)
End If
Next
S1(i) = sum1
If i <= su2 Then S2(i) = sum2
Next
'Sort both lists: [O( 2^(n/2) * n )] **(this is the 2nd slowest step)'
Array.Sort(S1)
Array.Sort(S2)
' Start the first half-sums from lowest to highest,'
'and the second half sums from highest to lowest.'
Dim i1 As Integer = 0, i2 As Integer = su2
' Now do a merge-match on the lists (but reversing S2) and looking to '
'match their sum to the target sum: [O( 2^(n/2) )]'
Dim sum As Integer
Do While i1 <= su1 And i2 >= 0
sum = S1(i1) + S2(i2)
If sum < TargetSum Then
'if the Sum is too low, then we need to increase the ascending side (S1):'
i1 += 1
ElseIf sum > TargetSum Then
'if the Sum is too high, then we need to decrease the descending side (S2):'
i2 -= 1
Else
'Sums match:'
Return True
End If
Loop
'if we got here, then there are no matches to the TargetSum'
Return False
End Function
End Class
Here is the Forms code to go along with it:
Public Class frmSubsetSum
Dim ssm As New SubsetSum
Private Sub btnGo_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles btnGo.Click
Dim Total As Integer
Dim datStart As Date, datEnd As Date
Dim Iterations As Integer, Range As Integer, NumberCount As Integer
Iterations = CInt(txtIterations.Text)
Range = CInt(txtRange.Text)
NumberCount = CInt(txtNumberCount.Text)
ssm.ForceMatch = chkForceMatch.Checked
datStart = Now
Total = ssm.SolveMany(NumberCount, Range, Iterations)
datEnd = Now()
lblStart.Text = datStart.TimeOfDay.ToString
lblEnd.Text = datEnd.TimeOfDay.ToString
lblRate.Text = Format(Iterations / (datEnd - datStart).TotalMilliseconds * 1000, "####0.0")
ListBox1.Items.Insert(0, "Found " & Total.ToString & " Matches out of " & Iterations.ToString & " tries.")
ListBox1.Items.Insert(1, "Tics 0:" & ssm.w0 _
& " 1:" & Format(ssm.w1 - ssm.w0, "###,###,##0") _
& " 1a:" & Format(ssm.w1a - ssm.w1, "###,###,##0") _
& " 2:" & Format(ssm.w2 - ssm.w1a, "###,###,##0") _
& " 3:" & Format(ssm.w3 - ssm.w2, "###,###,##0") _
& " 4:" & Format(ssm.w4 - ssm.w3, "###,###,##0") _
& ", tics/sec = " & Stopwatch.Frequency)
End Sub
End Class
Let me know if you have any questions.
For the record, here is some fairly simple Java code that uses recursion to solve this problem. It is optimised for simplicity rather than performance, although with 100 elements it seems to be quite fast. With 1000 elements it takes dramatically longer, so if you are processing larger amounts of data you could better use a more sophisticated algorithm.
public static List<Double> getMatchingAmounts(Double goal, List<Double> amounts) {
List<Double> remaining = new ArrayList<Double>(amounts);
for (final Double amount : amounts) {
if (amount > goal) {
continue;
} else if (amount.equals(goal)) {
return new ArrayList<Double>(){{ add(amount); }};
}
remaining.remove(amount);
List<Double> matchingAmounts = getMatchingAmounts(goal - amount, remaining);
if (matchingAmounts != null) {
matchingAmounts.add(amount);
return matchingAmounts;
}
}
return null;
}

Algorithm to calculate the number of divisors of a given number

What would be the most optimal algorithm (performance-wise) to calculate the number of divisors of a given number?
It'll be great if you could provide pseudocode or a link to some example.
EDIT: All the answers have been very helpful, thank you. I'm implementing the Sieve of Atkin and then I'm going to use something similar to what Jonathan Leffler indicated. The link posted by Justin Bozonier has further information on what I wanted.
Dmitriy is right that you'll want the Sieve of Atkin to generate the prime list but I don't believe that takes care of the whole issue. Now that you have a list of primes you'll need to see how many of those primes act as a divisor (and how often).
Here's some python for the algo Look here and search for "Subject: math - need divisors algorithm". Just count the number of items in the list instead of returning them however.
Here's a Dr. Math that explains what exactly it is you need to do mathematically.
Essentially it boils down to if your number n is:
n = a^x * b^y * c^z
(where a, b, and c are n's prime divisors and x, y, and z are the number of times that divisor is repeated)
then the total count for all of the divisors is:
(x + 1) * (y + 1) * (z + 1).
Edit: BTW, to find a,b,c,etc you'll want to do what amounts to a greedy algo if I'm understanding this correctly. Start with your largest prime divisor and multiply it by itself until a further multiplication would exceed the number n. Then move to the next lowest factor and times the previous prime ^ number of times it was multiplied by the current prime and keep multiplying by the prime until the next will exceed n... etc. Keep track of the number of times you multiply the divisors together and apply those numbers into the formula above.
Not 100% sure about my algo description but if that isn't it it's something similar .
There are a lot more techniques to factoring than the sieve of Atkin. For example suppose we want to factor 5893. Well its sqrt is 76.76... Now we'll try to write 5893 as a product of squares. Well (77*77 - 5893) = 36 which is 6 squared, so 5893 = 77*77 - 6*6 = (77 + 6)(77-6) = 83*71. If that hadn't worked we'd have looked at whether 78*78 - 5893 was a perfect square. And so on. With this technique you can quickly test for factors near the square root of n much faster than by testing individual primes. If you combine this technique for ruling out large primes with a sieve, you will have a much better factoring method than with the sieve alone.
And this is just one of a large number of techniques that have been developed. This is a fairly simple one. It would take you a long time to learn, say, enough number theory to understand the factoring techniques based on elliptic curves. (I know they exist. I don't understand them.)
Therefore unless you are dealing with small integers, I wouldn't try to solve that problem myself. Instead I'd try to find a way to use something like the PARI library that already has a highly efficient solution implemented. With that I can factor a random 40 digit number like 124321342332143213122323434312213424231341 in about .05 seconds. (Its factorization, in case you wondered, is 29*439*1321*157907*284749*33843676813*4857795469949. I am quite confident that it didn't figure this out using the sieve of Atkin...)
#Yasky
Your divisors function has a bug in that it does not work correctly for perfect squares.
Try:
int divisors(int x) {
int limit = x;
int numberOfDivisors = 0;
if (x == 1) return 1;
for (int i = 1; i < limit; ++i) {
if (x % i == 0) {
limit = x / i;
if (limit != i) {
numberOfDivisors++;
}
numberOfDivisors++;
}
}
return numberOfDivisors;
}
I disagree that the sieve of Atkin is the way to go, because it could easily take longer to check every number in [1,n] for primality than it would to reduce the number by divisions.
Here's some code that, although slightly hackier, is generally much faster:
import operator
# A slightly efficient superset of primes.
def PrimesPlus():
yield 2
yield 3
i = 5
while True:
yield i
if i % 6 == 1:
i += 2
i += 2
# Returns a dict d with n = product p ^ d[p]
def GetPrimeDecomp(n):
d = {}
primes = PrimesPlus()
for p in primes:
while n % p == 0:
n /= p
d[p] = d.setdefault(p, 0) + 1
if n == 1:
return d
def NumberOfDivisors(n):
d = GetPrimeDecomp(n)
powers_plus = map(lambda x: x+1, d.values())
return reduce(operator.mul, powers_plus, 1)
ps That's working python code to solve this problem.
Here is a straight forward O(sqrt(n)) algorithm. I used this to solve project euler
def divisors(n):
count = 2 # accounts for 'n' and '1'
i = 2
while i ** 2 < n:
if n % i == 0:
count += 2
i += 1
if i ** 2 == n:
count += 1
return count
This interesting question is much harder than it looks, and it has not been answered. The question can be factored into 2 very different questions.
1 given N, find the list L of N's prime factors
2 given L, calculate number of unique combinations
All answers I see so far refer to #1 and fail to mention it is not tractable for enormous numbers. For moderately sized N, even 64-bit numbers, it is easy; for enormous N, the factoring problem can take "forever". Public key encryption depends on this.
Question #2 needs more discussion. If L contains only unique numbers, it is a simple calculation using the combination formula for choosing k objects from n items. Actually, you need to sum the results from applying the formula while varying k from 1 to sizeof(L). However, L will usually contain multiple occurrences of multiple primes. For example, L = {2,2,2,3,3,5} is the factorization of N = 360. Now this problem is quite difficult!
Restating #2, given collection C containing k items, such that item a has a' duplicates, and item b has b' duplicates, etc. how many unique combinations of 1 to k-1 items are there? For example, {2}, {2,2}, {2,2,2}, {2,3}, {2,2,3,3} must each occur once and only once if L = {2,2,2,3,3,5}. Each such unique sub-collection is a unique divisor of N by multiplying the items in the sub-collection.
An answer to your question depends greatly on the size of the integer. Methods for small numbers, e.g. less then 100 bit, and for numbers ~1000 bit (such as used in cryptography) are completely different.
general overview: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisor_function
values for small n and some useful references: A000005: d(n) (also called tau(n) or sigma_0(n)), the number of divisors of n.
real-world example: factorization of integers
JUST one line
I have thought very carefuly about your question and I have tried to write a highly efficient and performant piece of code
To print all divisors of a given number on screen we need just one line of code!
(use option -std=c99 while compiling via gcc)
for(int i=1,n=9;((!(n%i)) && printf("%d is a divisor of %d\n",i,n)) || i<=(n/2);i++);//n is your number
for finding numbers of divisors you can use the following very very fast function(work correctly for all integer number except 1 and 2)
int number_of_divisors(int n)
{
int counter,i;
for(counter=0,i=1;(!(n%i) && (counter++)) || i<=(n/2);i++);
return counter;
}
or if you treat given number as a divisor(work correctly for all integer number except 1 and 2)
int number_of_divisors(int n)
{
int counter,i;
for(counter=0,i=1;(!(n%i) && (counter++)) || i<=(n/2);i++);
return ++counter;
}
NOTE:two above functions works correctly for all positive integer number except number 1 and 2
so it is functional for all numbers that are greater than 2
but if you Need to cover 1 and 2 , you can use one of the following functions( a little slower)
int number_of_divisors(int n)
{
int counter,i;
for(counter=0,i=1;(!(n%i) && (counter++)) || i<=(n/2);i++);
if (n==2 || n==1)
{
return counter;
}
return ++counter;
}
OR
int number_of_divisors(int n)
{
int counter,i;
for(counter=0,i=1;(!(i==n) && !(n%i) && (counter++)) || i<=(n/2);i++);
return ++counter;
}
small is beautiful :)
The sieve of Atkin is an optimized version of the sieve of Eratosthenes which gives all prime numbers up to a given integer. You should be able to google this for more detail.
Once you have that list, it's a simple matter to divide your number by each prime to see if it's an exact divisor (i.e., remainder is zero).
The basic steps calculating the divisors for a number (n) are [this is pseudocode converted from real code so I hope I haven't introduced errors]:
for z in 1..n:
prime[z] = false
prime[2] = true;
prime[3] = true;
for x in 1..sqrt(n):
xx = x * x
for y in 1..sqrt(n):
yy = y * y
z = 4*xx+yy
if (z <= n) and ((z mod 12 == 1) or (z mod 12 == 5)):
prime[z] = not prime[z]
z = z-xx
if (z <= n) and (z mod 12 == 7):
prime[z] = not prime[z]
z = z-yy-yy
if (z <= n) and (x > y) and (z mod 12 == 11):
prime[z] = not prime[z]
for z in 5..sqrt(n):
if prime[z]:
zz = z*z
x = zz
while x <= limit:
prime[x] = false
x = x + zz
for z in 2,3,5..n:
if prime[z]:
if n modulo z == 0 then print z
You might try this one. It's a bit hackish, but it's reasonably fast.
def factors(n):
for x in xrange(2,n):
if n%x == 0:
return (x,) + factors(n/x)
return (n,1)
Once you have the prime factorization, there is a way to find the number of divisors. Add one to each of the exponents on each individual factor and then multiply the exponents together.
For example:
36
Prime Factorization: 2^2*3^2
Divisors: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36
Number of Divisors: 9
Add one to each exponent 2^3*3^3
Multiply exponents: 3*3 = 9
Before you commit to a solution consider that the Sieve approach might not be a good answer in the typical case.
A while back there was a prime question and I did a time test--for 32-bit integers at least determining if it was prime was slower than brute force. There are two factors going on:
1) While a human takes a while to do a division they are very quick on the computer--similar to the cost of looking up the answer.
2) If you do not have a prime table you can make a loop that runs entirely in the L1 cache. This makes it faster.
This is an efficient solution:
#include <iostream>
int main() {
int num = 20;
int numberOfDivisors = 1;
for (int i = 2; i <= num; i++)
{
int exponent = 0;
while (num % i == 0) {
exponent++;
num /= i;
}
numberOfDivisors *= (exponent+1);
}
std::cout << numberOfDivisors << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Divisors do something spectacular: they divide completely. If you want to check the number of divisors for a number, n, it clearly is redundant to span the whole spectrum, 1...n. I have not done any in-depth research for this but I solved Project Euler's problem 12 on Triangular Numbers. My solution for the greater then 500 divisors test ran for 309504 microseconds (~0.3s). I wrote this divisor function for the solution.
int divisors (int x) {
int limit = x;
int numberOfDivisors = 1;
for (int i(0); i < limit; ++i) {
if (x % i == 0) {
limit = x / i;
numberOfDivisors++;
}
}
return numberOfDivisors * 2;
}
To every algorithm, there is a weak point. I thought this was weak against prime numbers. But since triangular numbers are not print, it served its purpose flawlessly. From my profiling, I think it did pretty well.
Happy Holidays.
You want the Sieve of Atkin, described here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieve_of_Atkin
Number theory textbooks call the divisor-counting function tau. The first interesting fact is that it's multiplicative, ie. τ(ab) = τ(a)τ(b) , when a and b have no common factor. (Proof: each pair of divisors of a and b gives a distinct divisor of ab).
Now note that for p a prime, τ(p**k) = k+1 (the powers of p). Thus you can easily compute τ(n) from its factorisation.
However factorising large numbers can be slow (the security of RSA crytopraphy depends on the product of two large primes being hard to factorise). That suggests this optimised algorithm
Test if the number is prime (fast)
If so, return 2
Otherwise, factorise the number (slow if multiple large prime factors)
Compute τ(n) from the factorisation
This is the most basic way of computing the number divissors:
class PrintDivisors
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println("Enter the number");
// Create Scanner object for taking input
Scanner s=new Scanner(System.in);
// Read an int
int n=s.nextInt();
// Loop from 1 to 'n'
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++)
{
// If remainder is 0 when 'n' is divided by 'i',
if(n%i==0)
{
System.out.print(i+", ");
}
}
// Print [not necessary]
System.out.print("are divisors of "+n);
}
}
the prime number method is very clear here .
P[] is a list of prime number less than or equal the sq = sqrt(n) ;
for (int i = 0 ; i < size && P[i]<=sq ; i++){
nd = 1;
while(n%P[i]==0){
n/=P[i];
nd++;
}
count*=nd;
if (n==1)break;
}
if (n!=1)count*=2;//the confusing line :D :P .
i will lift the understanding for the reader .
i now look forward to a method more optimized .
The following is a C program to find the number of divisors of a given number.
The complexity of the above algorithm is O(sqrt(n)).
This algorithm will work correctly for the number which are perfect square as well as the numbers which are not perfect square.
Note that the upperlimit of the loop is set to the square-root of number to have the algorithm most efficient.
Note that storing the upperlimit in a separate variable also saves the time, you should not call the sqrt function in the condition section of the for loop, this also saves your computational time.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main()
{
int i,n,limit,numberOfDivisors=1;
printf("Enter the number : ");
scanf("%d",&n);
limit=(int)sqrt((double)n);
for(i=2;i<=limit;i++)
if(n%i==0)
{
if(i!=n/i)
numberOfDivisors+=2;
else
numberOfDivisors++;
}
printf("%d\n",numberOfDivisors);
return 0;
}
Instead of the above for loop you can also use the following loop which is even more efficient as this removes the need to find the square-root of the number.
for(i=2;i*i<=n;i++)
{
...
}
Here is a function that I wrote. it's worst time complexity is O(sqrt(n)),best time on the other hand is O(log(n)). It gives you all the prime divisors along with the number of its occurence.
public static List<Integer> divisors(n) {
ArrayList<Integer> aList = new ArrayList();
int top_count = (int) Math.round(Math.sqrt(n));
int new_n = n;
for (int i = 2; i <= top_count; i++) {
if (new_n == (new_n / i) * i) {
aList.add(i);
new_n = new_n / i;
top_count = (int) Math.round(Math.sqrt(new_n));
i = 1;
}
}
aList.add(new_n);
return aList;
}
#Kendall
I tested your code and made some improvements, now it is even faster.
I also tested with #هومن جاویدپور code, this is also faster than his code.
long long int FindDivisors(long long int n) {
long long int count = 0;
long long int i, m = (long long int)sqrt(n);
for(i = 1;i <= m;i++) {
if(n % i == 0)
count += 2;
}
if(n / m == m && n % m == 0)
count--;
return count;
}
Isn't this just a question of factoring the number - determining all the factors of the number? You can then decide whether you need all combinations of one or more factors.
So, one possible algorithm would be:
factor(N)
divisor = first_prime
list_of_factors = { 1 }
while (N > 1)
while (N % divisor == 0)
add divisor to list_of_factors
N /= divisor
divisor = next_prime
return list_of_factors
It is then up to you to combine the factors to determine the rest of the answer.
I think this is what you are looking for.I does exactly what you asked for.
Copy and Paste it in Notepad.Save as *.bat.Run.Enter Number.Multiply the process by 2 and thats the number of divisors.I made that on purpose so the it determine the divisors faster:
Pls note that a CMD varriable cant support values over 999999999
#echo off
modecon:cols=100 lines=100
:start
title Enter the Number to Determine
cls
echo Determine a number as a product of 2 numbers
echo.
echo Ex1 : C = A * B
echo Ex2 : 8 = 4 * 2
echo.
echo Max Number length is 9
echo.
echo If there is only 1 proces done it
echo means the number is a prime number
echo.
echo Prime numbers take time to determine
echo Number not prime are determined fast
echo.
set /p number=Enter Number :
if %number% GTR 999999999 goto start
echo.
set proces=0
set mindet=0
set procent=0
set B=%Number%
:Determining
set /a mindet=%mindet%+1
if %mindet% GTR %B% goto Results
set /a solution=%number% %%% %mindet%
if %solution% NEQ 0 goto Determining
if %solution% EQU 0 set /a proces=%proces%+1
set /a B=%number% / %mindet%
set /a procent=%mindet%*100/%B%
if %procent% EQU 100 set procent=%procent:~0,3%
if %procent% LSS 100 set procent=%procent:~0,2%
if %procent% LSS 10 set procent=%procent:~0,1%
title Progress : %procent% %%%
if %solution% EQU 0 echo %proces%. %mindet% * %B% = %number%
goto Determining
:Results
title %proces% Results Found
echo.
#pause
goto start
i guess this one will be handy as well as precise
script.pyton
>>>factors=[ x for x in range (1,n+1) if n%x==0]
print len(factors)
Try something along these lines:
int divisors(int myNum) {
int limit = myNum;
int divisorCount = 0;
if (x == 1)
return 1;
for (int i = 1; i < limit; ++i) {
if (myNum % i == 0) {
limit = myNum / i;
if (limit != i)
divisorCount++;
divisorCount++;
}
}
return divisorCount;
}
I don't know the MOST efficient method, but I'd do the following:
Create a table of primes to find all primes less than or equal to the square root of the number (Personally, I'd use the Sieve of Atkin)
Count all primes less than or equal to the square root of the number and multiply that by two. If the square root of the number is an integer, then subtract one from the count variable.
Should work \o/
If you need, I can code something up tomorrow in C to demonstrate.

Resources