I'm trying to compile some personal language to erlang. I want to create a function with pattern matching on clauses.
This is my data :
Data =
[ {a, <a_body> }
, {b, <b_body> }
, {c, <c_body> }
].
This is what i want :
foo(a) -> <a_body>;
foo(b) -> <b_body>;
foo(c) -> <c_body>;
foo(_) -> undefined. %% <- this
I do that at the moment :
MkCaseClause =
fun({Pattern,Body}) ->
cerl:c_clause([cerl:c_atom(Pattern)], deep_literal(Body))
end,
WildCardClause = cerl:c_clause([ ??? ], cerl:c_atom(undefined)),
CaseClauses = [MkCaseClause(S) || S <- Data] ++ [WildCardClause],
So please help me to define WildCardClause. I saw that if i call my compiled function with neither a nor b nor c it results in ** exception error: no true branch found when evaluating an if expression in function ....
When i print my Core Erlang code i get this :
'myfuncname'/1 =
fun (Key) ->
case Key of
<'a'> when 'true' -> ...
<'b'> when 'true' -> ...
<'c'> when 'true' -> ...
end
So okay, case is translated to if when core is compiled. So i need to specify a true clause as in an if expression to get a pure wildcard. I don't know how to do it, since matching true in an if expression and in a case one are different semantics. In a case, true is not a wildcard.
And what if i would like match expressions with wildcards inside like {sometag,_,_,Thing} -> {ok, Thing}.
Thank you
I've found a way to do this
...
WildCardVar = cerl:c_var('_Any'),
WildCardClause = cerl:c_clause([WildCardVar], cerl:c_atom(undefined)),
...
It should work for inner wildcards too, but one has to be careful to give different variable names to each _ wildcard since only multiple _ do not match each other, variables do.
f(X,_, _ ) %% matches f(a,b,c)
f(X,_X,_X) %% doesn't
Related
I'm new to F# and to reactiveui, can someone help me to translate the following C# code to F#
this.WhenAnyValue(e => e.Username, p => p.Password,
(emailAddress, password) => (!string.IsNullOrEmpty(emailAddress)) && !string.IsNullOrEmpty(password) && password.Length > 6)
.ToProperty(this, v => v.IsValid, out _isValid);
Here's what I tried, even I don't know if this is the right way
this.WhenAnyValue(toLinq <# fun (vm:LoginViewModel) -> vm.Username #>, toLinq <# fun (vm:LoginViewModel) -> vm.Password #>)
.Where(fun (u, p) -> (not String.IsNullOrEmpty(u)) && (not String.IsNullOrEmpty(p)) && p.Length > 6)
.Select(fun _ -> true)
.ToProperty(this, (fun vm -> vm.IsValid), &_isValid) |> ignore
And I'm getting this error:
Error: Successive arguments should be separated by spaces or tupled, and arguments involving function or method applications should be parenthesized
This happens because of this:
not String.IsNullOrEmpty(u)
Parentheses don't carry a special meaning in F# as they do in C#. In F# they're just parentheses, not a special syntax for calling methods. In other words, the above expression is equivalent to this:
not String.IsNullOrEmpty u
I think it ought to be obvious what the problem is now: this looks as if you're calling the not function with two arguments, whereas what you actually meant to do was this:
not (String.IsNullOrEmpty u)
Or this:
not <| String.IsNullOrEmpty u
Or, alternativeIy, you could create a special function for this:
let notEmpty = not << String.IsNullOrEmpty
// And then:
notEmpty u
I'm learning F#. I want to know best practices for validating input parameters. In my naivety I had thought I could do something like this:
let foo = match bar with
| <test for valid> -> bar
| _ -> "invalid"
of course that doesn't work due to mismatching types. So I'd like to see the patterns experienced F# programmers use for this sort of thing. match? If/then/else?
Something else?
You are having problems because you are trying to bind a value to something that could be two possible types depending upon program flow - that is incompatible with static typing.
If I have some value foo, it cannot be, for example, a string OR an int depending upon program flow; it must resolve to exactly one type at compile time.
You can, however, use a discriminated union that can represent several different options within a single type.
Here is a summary of the approaches for doing just that.
Result Type / Either
F# 4.1, which is currently available via nuget, introduces the Result type. You may find this type referred to as Either in other languages.
It is defined like this:
[<Struct>]
type Result<'T,'TError> =
/// Represents an OK or a Successful result. The code succeeded with a value of 'T.
| Ok of ResultValue:'T
/// Represents an Error or a Failure. The code failed with a value of 'TError representing what went wrong.
| Error of ErrorValue:'TError
If you are pre-F# 4.1 (which is very likely). You can define this type yourself, although you must remove the [<Struct>] attribute.
You can then make a tryParseFloat function:
let tryParseFloat str =
match System.Double.TryParse str with
| true, f -> Ok f
| _ -> Error <| sprintf "Supplied string (%s) is not a valid float" str
You can determine success or failure:
match tryParseFloat "0.0001" with
|Ok v -> // handle success
|Error err -> // handle error
In my opinion, this is the preferred option, especially in F# 4.1+ where the type is built in. This is because it allows you to include information relating to how and why some activity failed.
Option Type / Maybe
The option type contains either Some 'T or simply None. The option type is used to indicate the presence or absence of a value, None fills a role similar to null in other languages, albeit far more safely.
You may find this type referred to as Maybe in other languages.
let tryParseFloat str =
match System.Double.TryParse str with
| true, f -> Some f
| _ -> None
You can determine success or failure:
match tryParseFloat "0.0001" with
|Some value -> // handle success
|None -> // handle error
Composition
In both cases, you can readily compose options or results using the associated map and bind functions in the Option and Result modules respectively:
Map:
val map: mapping:('T -> 'U) -> option:'T option -> 'U option
val map : mapping:('T -> 'U) -> result:Result<'T, 'TError> -> Result<'U, 'TError>
The map function lets you take an ordinary function from 'a -> 'b and makes it operate on results or options.
Use case: combine a result with a function that will always succeed and return a new result.
tryParseFloat "0.001" |> Result.map (fun x -> x + 1.0);;
val it : Result<float,string> = Ok 1.001
Bind:
val bind: binder:('T -> 'U option) -> option:'T option -> 'U option
val bind: binder:('T -> Result<'U, 'TError>) -> result:Result<'T, 'TError> -> Result<'U, 'TError>
The bind function lets you combine results or options with a function that takes an input and generates a result or option
Use case: combine a result with another function that may succeed or fail and return a new result.
Example:
let trySqrt x =
if x < 0.0 then Error "sqrt of negative number is imaginary"
else Ok (sqrt x)
tryParseFloat "0.001" |> Result.bind (fun x -> trySqrt x);;
val it : Result<float,string> = Ok 0.0316227766
tryParseFloat "-10.0" |> Result.bind (fun x -> trySqrt x);;
val it : Result<float,string> = Error "sqrt of negative number is imaginary"
tryParseFloat "Picard's Flute" |> Result.bind (fun x -> trySqrt x);;
val it : Result<float,string> =
Error "Supplied string (Picard's Flute) is not a valid float"
Notice that in both cases, we return a single result or option despite chaining multiple actions - that means that by following these patterns you need only check the result once, after all of your validation is complete.
This avoids a potential readability nightmare of nested if statements or match statements.
A good place to read more about this is the Railway Oriented Programming article that was mentioned to you previously.
Exceptions
Finally, you have the option of throwing exceptions as a way of preventing some value from validating. This is definitely not preferred if you expect it to occur but if the event is truly exceptional, this could be the best alternative.
The basic way of representing invalid states in F# is to use the option type, which has two possible values. None represents invalid state and Some(<v>) represents a valid value <v>.
So in your case, you could write something like:
let foo =
match bar with
| <test for valid> -> Some(bar)
| _ -> None
The match construct works well if <test for valid> is actual pattern (e.g. empty list or a specific invalid number or a null value), but if it is just a boolean expression, then it is probably better to write the condition using if:
let foo =
if <test for valid> bar then Some(bar)
else None
You could do something along this lines
type Bar =
| Bar of string
| Foo of int
let (|IsValidStr|_|) x = if x = Bar "bar" then Some x else None
let (|IsValidInt|_|) x = if x = Foo 0 then Some x else None
let foo (bar:Bar) =
match bar with
| IsValidStr x -> Some x
| IsValidInt x -> Some x
| _ -> None
That is you could use active patterns to check for the actual business rules and return an Option instance
Based on what the OP wrote in the comments:
You would define a type as in the post that Fyodor linked, that captures your two possible outcomes:
type Result<'TSuccess,'TFailure> =
| Success of 'TSuccess
| Failure of 'TFailure
Your validation code becomes:
let checkBool str =
match bool.TryParse str with
| true, b -> Success b
| _ -> Failure ("I can't parse this: " + str)
When using it, again use match:
let myInput = "NotABool"
match checkBool myInput with
| Success b -> printfn "I'm happy: %O" b
| Failure f -> printfn "Did not like because: %s" f
If you only would like to continue with valid bools, your code can only fail on invalid arguments, so you would do:
let myValidBool =
match checkBool myInput with
| Success b -> b
| Failure f -> failwithf "I did not like the args because: %s" f
Example and background ( note the usage of Hold, ReleaseHold ):
The following code represents a static factory method to create a scenegraph object ( from an XML file ). The (output-)field is an instance of CScenegraph ( an OO-System class ).
new[imp_]:= Module[{
ret,
type = "TG",
record ={{0,0,0},"Root TG"}
},
ret = MathNew[
"CScenegraph",
2,
MathNew["CTransformationgroup",1,{type,record},0,0,0,0,Null]];
ret#setTree[ret];
ret#getRoot[]#setColref[ret];
csp = loadClass["CSphere"];
spheres = Cases[imp, XMLElement["sphere", _, __], Infinity];
codesp = Cases[spheres, XMLElement["sphere",
{"point" -> point_, "radius" -> rad_, "hue" -> hue_}, {}] -> Hold[csp#new[ToExpression[point], ToExpression[rad], ToExpression[hue]]]];
ret#addAschild[ret#getRoot[],ReleaseHold[codesp]];
ret
];
My question is about the following:
spheres = Cases[imp, XMLElement[\sphere\, _, __], Infinity];
codesp = Cases[spheres, XMLElement[\sphere\,
{\point\ -> point_, \radius\ -> rad_, \"hue\" -> hue_}, {}] -> Hold[csp#new[ToExpression[point], ToExpression[rad], ToExpression[hue]]]];
ret#addAschild[ret#getRoot[],ReleaseHold[codesp]];
where
addAschild
adds ( a list of ) geometries to a ( root ) transformationgroup and has the signature
addAsChild[parent MathObject, child MathObject], or
addAsChild[parent MathObject, Children List{MathObject, ...}]
and the XML element representing a sphere looks as follows:
<sphere point='{0., 1., 3.}'
radius='1'
hue='0.55' />
If I do NOT USE Hold[] , ReleaseHold[] I end up with objectdata like
{"GE", {"SP", {CScenegraph`point, CScenegraph`rad}}, {CScenegraph`hue}}
while I would have expected
{"GE", {"SP", {{4., 3., -4.}, 3.}}, {0.45}}
(The above code with Hold[], ReleaseHold[] yields the correct data.)
Questions
1. Why is Hold necessary in this case? ( In fact, is it? Is there a way to code this without Hold[], ReleaseHold[]? ) ( I got it right by trial and error! Don't really understand why. )
2. As a learning point: What is the prototypical example / case for the usage of Hold / ReleaseHold?
EDIT:
Summary of Leonid's answer. Change this code
codesp = Cases[spheres, XMLElement["sphere",
{"point" -> point_, "radius" -> rad_, "hue" -> hue_}, {}] -> Hold[csp#new[ToExpression[point], ToExpression[rad], ToExpression[hue]]]];
ret#addAschild[ret#getRoot[],ReleaseHold[codesp]];
to:
codesp = Cases[spheres, XMLElement["sphere",
{"point" -> point_, "radius" -> rad_, "hue" -> hue_}, {}] :> csp#new[ToExpression[point], ToExpression[rad], ToExpression[hue]]];
ret#addAschild[ret#getRoot[],codesp];
The short answer for the first question is that you probably should have used RuleDelayed rather than Rule, and then you don't need Hold-ReleaseHold.
It is hard to be sure what is going on since your code sample is not self-contained. One thing to be sure is that OO-System performs non-trivial manipulations with contexts, since it uses contexts as an encapsulation mechanism (which makes sense). Normally, Rule and RuleDelayed inject the matched expressions in the r.h.s., so it is not clear how this could happen. Here is one possible scenario (you may execute this in a notebook):
BeginPackage["Test`"]
f[{a_Symbol, b_Symbol}] := {c, d};
fn[input_] := Cases[input, XMLElement[{"a" -> a_, "b" -> b_}, {}, {}] -> f[{a, b}]];
fn1[input_] := Cases[input, XMLElement[{"a" -> a_, "b" -> b_}, {}, {}] :> f[{a, b}]];
EndPackage[];
$ContextPath = DeleteCases[$ContextPath, "Test`"]
Now,
In[71]:= Test`fn[{XMLElement[{"a"->1,"b"->2},{},{}],{"a"->3,"b"->4},{"a"->5,"b"->6}}]
Out[71]= {{Test`c,Test`d}}
What happened is that, since we used Rule in XMLElement[...]->rhs, the r.h.s. evaluates before the substitution takes place - in this case the function f evaluates. Now,
In[78]:= Test`fn1[{XMLElement[{"a" -> 1, "b" -> 2}, {}, {}],
{"a" ->3, "b" -> 4}, {"a" -> 5, "b" -> 6}}]
Out[78]= {Test`f[{1, 2}]}
The result is different here since the idiom XMLElement[...] :> rhs was used in implementation of fn1, involving RuleDelayed this time. Therefore, f[{a,b}] was not evaluated until a and b were substituted by the matching numbers from the l.h.s. And since f does not have a rule for the argument of the form of list of 2 numbers, it is returned.
The reason why your method with Hold-ReleaseHold worked is that this prevented the r.h.s. (function f in my example, and the call to new in your original one) from evaluation until the values for pattern variables have been substituted into it. As a side note, you may find it useful to add better error-checking to your constructor (if OO-System allows that), so that problems like this would be better diagnosed at run-time.
So, the bottom line: use RuleDelayed, not Rule.
To answer the second question, the combination ReleaseHold-Hold is generally useful when you want to manipulate the held code before you allow it to evaluate. For example:
In[82]:=
{a,b,c}={1,2,3};
ReleaseHold[Replace[Hold[{a,b,c}],s_Symbol:>Print[s^2],{2}]]
During evaluation of In[82]:= 1
During evaluation of In[82]:= 4
During evaluation of In[82]:= 9
Out[83]= {Null,Null,Null}
One can probably come up with more sensible examples. This is especially useful for things like code-generation - one less trivial example can be found here. The specific case at hand, as I already mentioned, does not really fall into the category of cases where Hold-ReleaseHold are beneficial - they are here just a workaround, which is not really necessary when you use delayed rules.
Sorry about the vague title, but part of this question is what these two syntax styles are called:
let foo1 x =
match x with
| 1 -> "one"
| _ -> "not one"
let foo2 = function
| 1 -> "one"
| _ -> "not one"
The other part is what difference there is between the two, and when I would want to use one or the other?
The pro for the second syntax is that when used in a lambda, it could be a bit more terse and readable.
List.map (fun x -> match x with | 1 -> "one" | _ -> "not one") [0;1;2;3;1]
vs
List.map (function 1 -> "one" | _ -> "not one") [0;1;2;3;1]
The match version is called a "pattern matching expression". The function version is called a "pattern matching function". Found in section 6.6.4 of the spec.
Using one over the other is a matter of style. I prefer only using the function version when I need to define a function that is only a match statement.
The function version is a short hand for the full match syntax in the special case where the match statement is the entire function and the function only has a single argument (tuples count as one). If you want to have two arguments then you need to use the full match syntax*. You can see this in the types of the following two functions.
//val match_test : string -> string -> string
let match_test x y = match x, y with
| "A", _ -> "Hello A"
| _, "B" -> "Hello B"
| _ -> "Hello ??"
//val function_test : string * string -> string
let function_test = function
| "A", _ -> "Hello A"
| _, "B" -> "Hello B"
| _ -> "Hello ??"
As you can see match version takes two separate arguments whereas the function version takes a single tupled argument. I use the function version for most single argument functions since I find the function syntax looks cleaner.
*If you really wanted to you can get the function version to have the right type signature but it looks pretty ugly in my opinion - see example below.
//val function_match_equivalent : string -> string -> string
let function_match_equivalent x y = (x, y) |> function
| "A", _ -> "Hello A"
| _, "B" -> "Hello B"
| _ -> "Hello ??"
They do the same thing in your case -- the function keyword acts like a combination of the fun keyword (to produce an anonymous lambda) followed by the match keyword.
So technically these two are the same, with the addition of a fun:
let foo1 = fun x ->
match x with
| 1 -> "one"
| _ -> "not one"
let foo2 = function
| 1 -> "one"
| _ -> "not one"
Just for completeness sake, I just got to page 321 of Expert FSharp:
"Note, Listing 12-2 uses the expression form function pattern-rules -> expression. This is equivalent to (fun x -> match x with pattern-rules -> expression) and is especially convenient as a way to define functions working directly over discriminated unions."
function only allows for one argument but allows for pattern matching, while fun is the more general and flexible way to define a function. Take a look here: http://caml.inria.fr/pub/docs/manual-ocaml/expr.html
The two syntaxes are equivalent. Most programmers choose one or the other and then use it consistently.
The first syntax remains more readable when the function accepts several arguments before starting to work.
This is an old question but I will throw my $0.02.
In general I like better the match version since I come from the Python world where "explicit is better than implicit."
Of course if type information on the parameter is needed the function version cannot be used.
OTOH I like the argument made by Stringer so I will start to use function in simple lambdas.
I encountered the following construct in various places throughout Ocaml project I'm reading the code of.
match something with
true -> foo
| false -> bar
At first glance, it works like usual if statement. At second glance, it.. works like usual if statement! At third glance, I decided to ask at SO. Does this construct have special meaning or a subtle difference from if statement that matters in peculiar cases?
Yep, it's an if statement.
Often match cases are more common in OCaml code than if, so it may be used for uniformity.
I don't agree with the previous answer, it DOES the work of an if statement but it's more flexible than that.
"pattern matching is a switch statement but 10 times more powerful" someone stated
take a look at this tutorial explaining ways to use pattern matching Link here
Also, when using OCAML pattern matching is the way to allow you break composed data to simple ones, for example a list, tuple and much more
> Let imply v =
match v with
| True, x -> x
| False, _ -> true;;
> Let head = function
| [] -> 42
| H:: _ -> am;
> Let rec sum = function
| [] -> 0
| H:: l -> h + sum l;;