instead of writing a pipe to a huge file i want to segment the stream in chunks on signal USR1. i think i got the basics working but the app just hangs and nothing happens, any clues or best practices when handling with an uncontrollable input stream and byte perfect segmentation?
package main
import (
"bufio"
"fmt"
"io"
"os"
"os/signal"
"syscall"
"time"
)
var done bool
func handle(c chan os.Signal) {
for {
sig := <-c
switch sig {
case syscall.SIGUSR1:
fmt.Println("###Sink temporarily_closed###")
done = true
case syscall.SIGUSR2:
fmt.Println("###Sink closed###")
done = true
case syscall.SIGHUP:
fmt.Println("###Sink running###")
}
}
}
func check(e error) {
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
}
func main() {
c := make(chan os.Signal, 1)
signal.Notify(c, syscall.SIGUSR1, syscall.SIGUSR2, syscall.SIGHUP)
go handle(c)
reader := bufio.NewReaderSize(os.Stdin,1024*10)
for true {
if done {
file, err := os.Create("./temp.file")
check(err)
writer := bufio.NewWriter(file)
written, err := io.Copy(writer,reader)
check(err)
fmt.Println(written)
writer.Flush()
file.Close()
reader.Reset(os.Stdin)
done = false
}
time.Sleep(time.Millisecond)
}
}
So you need to io.CopyN(dst, src, 4096) in the loop and rotate the file once in a while. See example. I made rotation by size but it is easy to add signal handling.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"io"
"log"
"os"
"time"
)
var count int
var f *os.File
func rotate() *os.File {
if f != nil {
if err := f.Close(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
}
fname := fmt.Sprintf("./dump-%d.bin", count)
count++
f, err := os.Create(fname)
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
log.Println("rotated:", fname)
return f
}
func main() {
var n, written int
reader := os.Stdin
for {
if written == 0 || written >= 4096*10 {
f = rotate()
written = 0
}
n, err := io.CopyN(f, reader, 4096)
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
written += n
log.Println("written:", written)
time.Sleep(time.Millisecond * 500)
}
}
Related
There is a program which creates file per second. I want to append file names into slice and print them. Now my program executes incorrect, it appends names but only for one file name. So I expect to get []string{"1","2","3"}, instead I get []string{"1","1","1"}, []string{"2","2","2"}, []string{"3","3","3"}. How to correct my prog to get expected result?
package main
import (
"encoding/csv"
"fmt"
"os"
"strconv"
"time"
)
func main() {
for {
time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
createFile()
}
}
func createFile() {
rowFile := time.Now().Second()
fileName := strconv.Itoa(rowFile)
file, err := os.OpenFile(fileName, os.O_CREATE|os.O_WRONLY|os.O_APPEND, 0644)
if err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
defer file.Close()
writer := csv.NewWriter(file)
writer.Comma = '|'
err = writer.Write([]string{""})
if err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
countFiles(fileName)
}
func countFiles(fileName string) {
arrFiles := make([]string, 0, 3)
for i := 0; i < 3; i++ {
arrFiles = append(arrFiles, fileName)
}
fmt.Println(arrFiles)// here I expect ["1","2","3"] then ["4","5","6"] and so on. But now there is ["1","1","1"] then ["2","2","2"] and so on
}
createFile() does not persist created file names in any way. You can do something like that:
package main
import (
"encoding/csv"
"fmt"
"os"
"strconv"
"time"
)
func main() {
files := []string{}
for {
time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
files = append(files, createFile())
fmt.Println(files)
}
}
func createFile() string {
rowFile := time.Now().Second()
fileName := strconv.Itoa(rowFile)
file, err := os.OpenFile(fileName, os.O_CREATE|os.O_WRONLY|os.O_APPEND, 0644)
if err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
defer file.Close()
writer := csv.NewWriter(file)
writer.Comma = '|'
err = writer.Write([]string{""})
if err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
return fileName
}
I want to loop through the menu's options. However, it stops at the first option, since the select without "default:" is blocking and it does not know more options will appear dynamically.
Bellow is the broken code:
package main
import (
"bytes"
"fmt"
"io/ioutil"
"log"
"os/exec"
"strings"
"time"
"github.com/getlantern/systray"
"gopkg.in/yaml.v3"
)
var menuItensPtr []*systray.MenuItem
var config map[string]string
var commands []string
func main() {
config = readconfig()
systray.Run(onReady, onExit)
}
func onReady() {
systray.SetIcon(getIcon("assets/menu.ico"))
menuItensPtr = make([]*systray.MenuItem,0)
commands = make([]string,0)
for k, v := range config {
menuItemPtr := systray.AddMenuItem(k, k)
menuItensPtr = append(menuItensPtr, menuItemPtr)
commands = append(commands, v)
}
systray.AddSeparator()
// mQuit := systray.AddMenuItem("Quit", "Quits this app")
go func() {
for {
systray.SetTitle("My tray menu")
systray.SetTooltip("https://github.com/evandrojr/my-tray-menu")
time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
}
}()
go func() {
for{
for i, menuItenPtr := range menuItensPtr {
select {
/// EXECUTION GETS STUCK HERE!!!!!!!
case<-menuItenPtr.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[i])
}
}
// select {
// case <-mQuit.ClickedCh:
// systray.Quit()
// return
// // default:
// }
}
}()
}
func onExit() {
// Cleaning stuff will go here.
}
func getIcon(s string) []byte {
b, err := ioutil.ReadFile(s)
if err != nil {
fmt.Print(err)
}
return b
}
func execute(commands string){
command_array:= strings.Split(commands, " ")
command:=""
command, command_array = command_array[0], command_array[1:]
cmd := exec.Command(command, command_array ...)
var out bytes.Buffer
cmd.Stdout = &out
err := cmd.Run()
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// fmt.Printf("Output %s\n", out.String())
}
func readconfig() map[string]string{
yfile, err := ioutil.ReadFile("my-tray-menu.yaml")
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
data := make(map[string]string)
err2 := yaml.Unmarshal(yfile, &data)
if err2 != nil {
log.Fatal(err2)
}
for k, v := range data {
fmt.Printf("%s -> %s\n", k, v)
}
return data
}
Bellow is the ugly workaround that works:
package main
import (
"bytes"
"fmt"
"io/ioutil"
"log"
"os"
"os/exec"
"path/filepath"
"strings"
"time"
"github.com/getlantern/systray"
"gopkg.in/yaml.v3"
)
var menuItensPtr []*systray.MenuItem
var config map[string]string
var commands []string
var labels []string
var programPath string
func main() {
setProgramPath()
config = readconfig()
time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
systray.Run(onReady, onExit)
}
func onReady() {
systray.SetIcon(getIcon(filepath.Join(programPath,"assets/menu.ico")))
menuItensPtr = make([]*systray.MenuItem, 0)
i := 0
op0 := systray.AddMenuItem(labels[i], commands[i])
i++
op1 := systray.AddMenuItem(labels[i], commands[i])
i++
op2 := systray.AddMenuItem(labels[i], commands[i])
i++
op3 := systray.AddMenuItem(labels[i], commands[i])
i++
systray.AddSeparator()
mQuit := systray.AddMenuItem("Quit", "Quits this app")
go func() {
for {
systray.SetTitle("My tray menu")
systray.SetTooltip("https://github.com/evandrojr/my-tray-menu")
time.Sleep(1 * time.Second)
}
}()
go func() {
for {
select {
// HERE DOES NOT GET STUCK!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
case <-op0.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[0])
case <-op1.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[1])
case <-op2.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[2])
case <-op3.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[3])
case <-mQuit.ClickedCh:
systray.Quit()
return
}
}
}()
}
func onExit() {
// Cleaning stuff will go here.
}
func getIcon(s string) []byte {
b, err := ioutil.ReadFile(s)
if err != nil {
fmt.Print(err)
}
return b
}
func setProgramPath(){
ex, err := os.Executable()
if err != nil {
panic(err)
}
programPath = filepath.Dir(ex)
if err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
os.Exit(1)
}
}
func execute(commands string) {
command_array := strings.Split(commands, " ")
command := ""
command, command_array = command_array[0], command_array[1:]
cmd := exec.Command(command, command_array...)
var out bytes.Buffer
cmd.Stdout = &out
err := cmd.Run()
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
fmt.Printf("Output %s\n", out.String())
}
func readconfig() map[string]string {
yfile, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(programPath,"my-tray-menu.yaml"))
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
data := make(map[string]string)
err2 := yaml.Unmarshal(yfile, &data)
if err2 != nil {
log.Fatal(err2)
}
labels = make([]string, 0)
commands = make([]string, 0)
for k, v := range data {
labels = append(labels, k)
commands = append(commands, v)
fmt.Printf("%s -> %s\n", k, v)
}
fmt.Print(len(labels))
return data
}
Full source code here:
https://github.com/evandrojr/my-tray-menu
select "chooses which of a set of possible send or receive operations will proceed". The spec sets out how this choice is made:
If one or more of the communications can proceed, a single one that can proceed is chosen via a uniform pseudo-random selection. Otherwise, if there is a default case, that case is chosen. If there is no default case, the "select" statement blocks until at least one of the communications can proceed.
Your working example:
select {
case <-op0.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[0])
case <-op1.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[1])
// ...
}
uses select successfully to choose between one of the offered options. However if you pass a single option e.g.
select {
case<-menuItenPtr.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[i])
}
}
The select will block until <-menuItenPtr.ClickedCh is ready to proceed (e.g. something is received). This is effectively the same as not using a select:
<-menuItenPtr.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[i])
The result you were expecting can be achieved by providing a default option:
select {
case<-menuItenPtr.ClickedCh:
execute(commands[i])
}
default:
}
As per the quote from the spec above the default option will be chosen if none of the other options can proceed. While this may work it's not a very good solution because you effectively end up with:
for {
// Check if event happened (not blocking)
}
This will tie up CPU time unnecessarily as it continually loops checking for events. A better solution would be to start a goroutine to monitor each channel:
for i, menuItenPtr := range menuItensPtr {
go func(c chan struct{}, cmd string) {
for range c { execute(cmd) }
}(menuItenPtr.ClickedCh, commands[i])
}
// Start another goroutine to handle quit
The above will probably work but does lead to the possibility that execute will be called concurrently (which might cause issues if your code is not threadsafe). One way around this is to use the "fan in" pattern (as suggested by #kostix and in the Rob Pike video suggested by #John); something like:
cmdChan := make(chan int)
for i, menuItenPtr := range menuItensPtr {
go func(c chan struct{}, cmd string) {
for range c { cmdChan <- cmd }
}(menuItenPtr.ClickedCh, commands[i])
}
go func() {
for {
select {
case cmd := <- cmdChan:
execute(cmd) // Handle command
case <-mQuit.ClickedCh:
systray.Quit()
return
}
}
}()
note: all code above entered directly into the question so please treat as pseudo code!
I am playing around Golang. About io.Copy
I put 2 consecutive io.Copy in the code, but i expect it output twice result(testtesttest). But the 2nd one is nil. Can anyone help explain why? tks
package main
import (
"io"
"os"
"strings"
"fmt"
)
type testReader struct {
w io.Reader
str string
}
func (tt *testReader) Read (b []byte) (n int, err error) {
io.Copy(os.Stdout, tt.w)
n, err = tt.w.Read(b)
if tt.w !=nil {
return 0,io.EOF
}
return
}
func main() {
s := strings.NewReader("testtesttest!!!")
r := testReader{s,"ttthhh"}
fmt.Println(&r)
io.Copy(os.Stdout, &r)
// s.Seek(0,0) // solution from Poy's answer
io.Copy(os.Stdout, &r)
}
I'm going to prune down the given example to (as there is a bit of noise):
package main
import (
"io"
"os"
"strings"
)
func main() {
s := strings.NewReader("testtesttest")
io.Copy(os.Stdout, s) // Will print "testtesttest"
io.Copy(os.Stdout, s) // Won't print anything
}
The reason the second copy won't output anything is the io.Reader (s) has already been read. Reading from a io.Reader is not idempotent (you can't call it twice to get the same results). It also doesn't have a way to "reset" it or anything.
As #JRLambert pointed out you have s.Seek() and s.Reset() to allow you to start reading again.
Quick addition to all the correct answers (#poy and #JRLambert) provided so far... Use io.TeeReader or io.MultiWriter for times when you would want to use io.Copy more than once. Below are some examples of using each.
Using io.TeeReader
package main
import (
"bytes"
"crypto/md5"
"encoding/hex"
"fmt"
"io"
"io/ioutil"
"os"
)
func main() {
sourceFile, _ := os.Open("source/ebook.pdf")
var buf bytes.Buffer
tee := io.TeeReader(sourceFile, &buf)
process := func(sourceReader io.Reader) {
targetFile, _ := os.Create("target/ebook.pdf")
defer targetFile.Close()
if _, err := io.Copy(targetFile, sourceReader); err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
}
process(tee)
fmt.Println(checksum(&buf))
}
func checksum(buf *bytes.Buffer) string {
h := md5.New()
b, _ := ioutil.ReadAll(buf)
if _, err := h.Write(b); err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
return hex.EncodeToString(h.Sum(nil)[:16])
}
Using io.MultiWriter
package main
import (
"bytes"
"crypto/md5"
"encoding/hex"
"fmt"
"io"
"io/ioutil"
"os"
)
func main() {
sourceFile, _ := os.Open("source/ebook.pdf")
process := func(sourceReader io.Reader) {
targetFile, _ := os.Create("target/ebook.pdf")
defer targetFile.Close()
var buf1, buf2 bytes.Buffer
w := io.MultiWriter(targetFile, &buf1, &buf2)
if _, err := io.Copy(w, sourceReader); err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
fmt.Println(checksum(&buf1))
fmt.Println(checksum(&buf2))
}
process(sourceFile)
}
func checksum(buf *bytes.Buffer) string {
h := md5.New()
b, _ := ioutil.ReadAll(buf)
if _, err := h.Write(b); err != nil {
fmt.Println(err)
}
return hex.EncodeToString(h.Sum(nil)[:16])
}
Very new to Go (first simple project I'm working on).
Question: How do I get an image from URL and then save it to my computer?
Here's what I have so far:
package main
import (
"fmt"
"net/http"
"image"
"io/ioutil"
)
func main() {
url := "http://i.imgur.com/m1UIjW1.jpg"
// don't worry about errors
response, _ := http.Get(url);
defer response.Body.Close()
m, _, err := image.Decode(response.Body)
error := ioutil.WriteFile("/images/asdf.jpg", m, 0644)
}
However, when I run this code, I get cannot use m (type image.Image) as type []byte in function argument
I'm assuming I have to convert image.Image (variable m) into an undefined amount of bytes? Is that the correct way to go about this?
There is no need to decode the file. Simply copy the response body to a file you've opened. Here's the deal in the modified example:
response.Body is a stream of data, and implements the Reader interface - meaning you can sequentially call Read on it, as if it was an open file.
The file I'm opening here implements the Writer interface. This is the opposite - it's a stream you can call Write on.
io.Copy "patches" a reader and a writer, consumes the reader stream and writes its contents to a Writer.
This is one of my favorite things about go - implicit interfaces. You don't have to declare you're implementing an interface, you just have to implement it to be used in some context. This allows mixing and matching of code that doesn't need to know about other code it's interacting with.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"io"
"log"
"net/http"
"os"
)
func main() {
url := "http://i.imgur.com/m1UIjW1.jpg"
// don't worry about errors
response, e := http.Get(url)
if e != nil {
log.Fatal(e)
}
defer response.Body.Close()
//open a file for writing
file, err := os.Create("/tmp/asdf.jpg")
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
defer file.Close()
// Use io.Copy to just dump the response body to the file. This supports huge files
_, err = io.Copy(file, response.Body)
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
fmt.Println("Success!")
}
package main
import (
"io"
"net/http"
"os"
"fmt"
)
func main() {
img, _ := os.Create("image.jpg")
defer img.Close()
resp, _ := http.Get("http://i.imgur.com/Dz2r9lk.jpg")
defer resp.Body.Close()
b, _ := io.Copy(img, resp.Body)
fmt.Println("File size: ", b)
}
Try this:
package main
import (
"fmt"
"net/http"
"net/url"
"os"
"strings"
)
var (
fileName string
fullUrlFile string
)
func main() {
fullUrlFile = "https://i.imgur.com/m1UIjW1.jpg"
r, e := http.Get(fullUrlFile)
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
defer r.Body.Close()
buildFileName()
// Create distination
f, e := os.Create(fileName) // "m1UIjW1.jpg"
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
defer f.Close()
// Fill distination with content
n, e := f.ReadFrom(r.Body)
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
fmt.Println("File size: ", n)
}
func buildFileName() {
fileUrl, e := url.Parse(fullUrlFile)
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
path := fileUrl.Path
segments := strings.Split(path, "/")
fileName = segments[len(segments)-1]
println(fileName)
}
You can also use the ReadFrom method:
package main
import (
"net/http"
"os"
)
func main() {
r, e := http.Get("https://i.imgur.com/m1UIjW1.jpg")
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
defer r.Body.Close()
f, e := os.Create("m1UIjW1.jpg")
if e != nil {
panic(e)
}
defer f.Close()
f.ReadFrom(r.Body)
}
https://golang.org/pkg/os#File.ReadFrom
What is the type of response.Body? You should just convert that into a []byte if it is not and write that to disk. There is no reason to use the image class unless you have some reason to treat the data as an image. Just treat the data as a series of bytes and write it to the disk.
How can I pipe several external commands together in Go? I've tried this code but I get an error that says exit status 1.
package main
import (
"io"
"log"
"os"
"os/exec"
)
func main() {
c1 := exec.Command("ls")
stdout1, err := c1.StdoutPipe()
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
if err = c1.Start(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
if err = c1.Wait(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
c2 := exec.Command("wc", "-l")
c2.Stdin = stdout1
stdout2, err := c2.StdoutPipe()
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
if err = c2.Start(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
if err = c2.Wait(); err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
io.Copy(os.Stdout, stdout2)
}
For simple scenarios, you could use this approach:
bash -c "echo 'your command goes here'"
For example, this function retrieves the CPU model name using piped commands:
func getCPUmodel() string {
cmd := "cat /proc/cpuinfo | egrep '^model name' | uniq | awk '{print substr($0, index($0,$4))}'"
out, err := exec.Command("bash","-c",cmd).Output()
if err != nil {
return fmt.Sprintf("Failed to execute command: %s", cmd)
}
return string(out)
}
StdoutPipe returns a pipe that will be connected to the command's
standard output when the command starts. The pipe will be closed
automatically after Wait sees the command exit.
(from http://golang.org/pkg/os/exec/#Cmd.StdinPipe )
The fact you do c1.Wait closes the stdoutPipe.
I made a working example (just a demo, add error catching!) :
package main
import (
"bytes"
"io"
"os"
"os/exec"
)
func main() {
c1 := exec.Command("ls")
c2 := exec.Command("wc", "-l")
r, w := io.Pipe()
c1.Stdout = w
c2.Stdin = r
var b2 bytes.Buffer
c2.Stdout = &b2
c1.Start()
c2.Start()
c1.Wait()
w.Close()
c2.Wait()
io.Copy(os.Stdout, &b2)
}
package main
import (
"os"
"os/exec"
)
func main() {
c1 := exec.Command("ls")
c2 := exec.Command("wc", "-l")
c2.Stdin, _ = c1.StdoutPipe()
c2.Stdout = os.Stdout
_ = c2.Start()
_ = c1.Run()
_ = c2.Wait()
}
Like the first answer but with the first command started and waited for in a goroutine. This keeps the pipe happy.
package main
import (
"io"
"os"
"os/exec"
)
func main() {
c1 := exec.Command("ls")
c2 := exec.Command("wc", "-l")
pr, pw := io.Pipe()
c1.Stdout = pw
c2.Stdin = pr
c2.Stdout = os.Stdout
c1.Start()
c2.Start()
go func() {
defer pw.Close()
c1.Wait()
}()
c2.Wait()
}
This is a fully working example. The Execute function takes any number of exec.Cmd instances (using a variadic function) and then loops over them correctly attaching the output of stdout to the stdin of the next command. This must be done before any function is called.
The call function then goes about calling the commands in a loop, using defers to call recursively and ensuring proper closure of pipes
package main
import (
"bytes"
"io"
"log"
"os"
"os/exec"
)
func Execute(output_buffer *bytes.Buffer, stack ...*exec.Cmd) (err error) {
var error_buffer bytes.Buffer
pipe_stack := make([]*io.PipeWriter, len(stack)-1)
i := 0
for ; i < len(stack)-1; i++ {
stdin_pipe, stdout_pipe := io.Pipe()
stack[i].Stdout = stdout_pipe
stack[i].Stderr = &error_buffer
stack[i+1].Stdin = stdin_pipe
pipe_stack[i] = stdout_pipe
}
stack[i].Stdout = output_buffer
stack[i].Stderr = &error_buffer
if err := call(stack, pipe_stack); err != nil {
log.Fatalln(string(error_buffer.Bytes()), err)
}
return err
}
func call(stack []*exec.Cmd, pipes []*io.PipeWriter) (err error) {
if stack[0].Process == nil {
if err = stack[0].Start(); err != nil {
return err
}
}
if len(stack) > 1 {
if err = stack[1].Start(); err != nil {
return err
}
defer func() {
if err == nil {
pipes[0].Close()
err = call(stack[1:], pipes[1:])
}
}()
}
return stack[0].Wait()
}
func main() {
var b bytes.Buffer
if err := Execute(&b,
exec.Command("ls", "/Users/tyndyll/Downloads"),
exec.Command("grep", "as"),
exec.Command("sort", "-r"),
); err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
io.Copy(os.Stdout, &b)
}
Available in this gist
https://gist.github.com/tyndyll/89fbb2c2273f83a074dc
A good point to know is that shell variables like ~ are not interpolated
I wanted to pipe some video and audio to FFplay. This worked for me:
package main
import (
"io"
"os/exec"
)
func main() {
ffmpeg := exec.Command(
"ffmpeg", "-i", "247.webm", "-i", "251.webm", "-c", "copy", "-f", "webm", "-",
)
ffplay := exec.Command("ffplay", "-")
ffplay.Stdin, ffmpeg.Stdout = io.Pipe()
ffmpeg.Start()
ffplay.Run()
}
https://golang.org/pkg/io#Pipe
package main
import (
...
pipe "github.com/b4b4r07/go-pipe"
)
func main() {
var b bytes.Buffer
pipe.Command(&b,
exec.Command("ls", "/Users/b4b4r07/Downloads"),
exec.Command("grep", "Vim"),
)
io.Copy(os.Stdout, &b)
}
I spent a good day trying to use Denys Séguret answer to come up with a wrapper for multiple exec.Command before I came across this neat package by b4b4r07.
Because it can be complex to build such command chains I have decided to implements a litte go library for that purpose: https://github.com/rainu/go-command-chain
package main
import (
"bytes"
"fmt"
"github.com/rainu/go-command-chain"
)
func main() {
output := &bytes.Buffer{}
err := cmdchain.Builder().
Join("ls").
Join("wc", "-l").
Finalize().WithOutput(output).Run()
if err != nil {
panic(err)
}
fmt.Printf("Errors found: %s", output)
}
With the help of this lib you can also configure std-error forwarding and other things.