I know that you can use ' (aka quote) to create a list, and I use this all the time, like this:
> (car '(1 2 3))
1
But it doesn’t always work like I’d expect. For example, I tried to create a list of functions, like this, but it didn’t work:
> (define math-fns '(+ - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
application: not a procedure;
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
When I use list, it works:
> (define math-fns (list + - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
'(1 -1 1 1)
Why? I thought ' was just a convenient shorthand, so why is the behavior different?
TL;DR: They are different; use list when in doubt.
A rule of thumb: use list whenever you want the arguments to be evaluated; quote “distributes” over its arguments, so '(+ 1 2) is like (list '+ '1 '2). You’ll end up with a symbol in your list, not a function.
An in-depth look at list and quote
In Scheme and Racket, quote and list are entirely different things, but since both of them can be used to produce lists, confusion is common and understandable. There is an incredibly important difference between them: list is a plain old function, while quote (even without the special ' syntax) is a special form. That is, list can be implemented in plain Scheme, but quote cannot be.
The list function
The list function is actually by far the simpler of the two, so let’s start there. It is a function that takes any number of arguments, and it collects the arguments into a list.
> (list 1 2 3)
(1 2 3)
This above example can be confusing because the result is printed as a quoteable s-expression, and it’s true, in this case, the two syntaxes are equivalent. But if we get slightly more complicated, you’ll see that it is different:
> (list 1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 2 3)
> '(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
What’s going on in the quote example? Well, we’ll discuss that in a moment, but first, take a look at list. It’s just an ordinary function, so it follows standard Scheme evaluation semantics: it evaluates each of its arguments before they get passed to the function. This means that expressions like (+ 1 1) will be reduced to 2 before they get collected into the list.
This behavior is also visible when supplying variables to the list function:
> (define x 42)
> (list x)
(42)
> '(x)
(x)
With list, the x gets evaluated before getting passed to list. With quote, things are more complicated.
Finally, because list is just a function, it can be used just like any other function, including in higher-order ways. For example, it can be passed to the map function, and it will work appropriately:
> (map list '(1 2 3) '(4 5 6))
((1 4) (2 5) (3 6))
The quote form
Quotation, unlike list, is a special part of Lisps. The quote form is special in part because it gets a special reader abbreviation, ', but it’s also special even without that. Unlike list, quote is not a function, and therefore it does not need to behave like one—it has rules of its own.
A brief discussion of Lisp source code
In Lisp, of which Scheme and Racket are derivatives, all code is actually made up of ordinary data structures. For example, consider the following expression:
(+ 1 2)
That expression is actually a list, and it has three elements:
the + symbol
the number 1
the number 2
All of these values are normal values that can be created by the programmer. It’s really easy to create the 1 value because it evaluates to itself: you just type 1. But symbols and lists are harder: by default, a symbol in the source code does a variable lookup! That is, symbols are not self-evaluating:
> 1
1
> a
a: undefined
cannot reference undefined identifier
As it turns out, though, symbols are basically just strings, and in fact we can convert between them:
> (string->symbol "a")
a
Lists do even more than symbols, because by default, a list in the source code calls a function! Doing (+ 1 2) looks at the first element in the list, the + symbol, looks up the function associated with it, and invokes it with the rest of the elements in the list.
Sometimes, though, you might want to disable this “special” behavior. You might want to just get the list or get the symbol without it being evaluated. To do this, you can use quote.
The meaning of quotation
With all this in mind, it’s pretty obvious what quote does: it just “turns off” the special evaluation behavior for the expression that it wraps. For example, consider quoteing a symbol:
> (quote a)
a
Similarly, consider quoteing a list:
> (quote (a b c))
(a b c)
No matter what you give quote, it will always, always spit it back out at you. No more, no less. That means if you give it a list, none of the subexpressions will be evaluated—do not expect them to be! If you need evaluation of any kind, use list.
Now, one might ask: what happens if you quote something other than a symbol or a list? Well, the answer is... nothing! You just get it back.
> (quote 1)
1
> (quote "abcd")
"abcd"
This makes sense, since quote still just spits out exactly what you give it. This is why “literals” like numbers and strings are sometimes called “self-quoting” in Lisp parlance.
One more thing: what happens if you quote an expression containing quote? That is, what if you “double quote”?
> (quote (quote 3))
'3
What happened there? Well, remember that ' is actually just a direct abbreviation for quote, so nothing special happened at all! In fact, if your Scheme has a way to disable the abbreviations when printing, it will look like this:
> (quote (quote 3))
(quote 3)
Don’t be fooled by quote being special: just like (quote (+ 1)), the result here is just a plain old list. In fact, we can get the first element out of the list: can you guess what it will be?
> (car (quote (quote 3)))
quote
If you guessed 3, you are wrong. Remember, quote disables all evaluation, and an expression containing a quote symbol is still just a plain list. Play with this in the REPL until you are comfortable with it.
> (quote (quote (quote 3)))
''3
(quote (1 2 (quote 3)))
(1 2 '3)
Quotation is incredibly simple, but it can come off as very complex because of how it tends to defy our understanding of the traditional evaluation model. In fact, it is confusing because of how simple it is: there are no special cases, there are no rules. It just returns exactly what you give it, precisely as stated (hence the name “quotation”).
Appendix A: Quasiquotation
So if quotation completely disables evaluation, what is it good for? Well, aside from making lists of strings, symbols, or numbers that are all known ahead of time, not much. Fortunately, the concept of quasiquotation provides a way to break out of the quotation and go back into ordinary evaluation.
The basics are super simple: instead of using quote, use quasiquote. Normally, this works exactly like quote in every way:
> (quasiquote 3)
3
> (quasiquote x)
x
> (quasiquote ((a b) (c d)))
((a b) (c d))
What makes quasiquote special is that is recognizes a special symbol, unquote. Wherever unquote appears in the list, then it is replaced by the arbitrary expression it contains:
> (quasiquote (1 2 (+ 1 2)))
(1 2 (+ 1 2))
> (quasiquote (1 2 (unquote (+ 1 2))))
(1 2 3)
This lets you use quasiquote to construct templates of sorts that have “holes” to be filled in with unquote. This means it’s possible to actually include the values of variables inside of quoted lists:
> (define x 42)
> (quasiquote (x is: (unquote x)))
(x is: 42)
Of course, using quasiquote and unquote is rather verbose, so they have abbreviations of their own, just like '. Specifically, quasiquote is ` (backtick) and unquote is , (comma). With those abbreviations, the above example is much more palatable.
> `(x is: ,x)
(x is: 42)
One final point: quasiquote actually can be implemented in Racket using a rather hairy macro, and it is. It expands to usages of list, cons, and of course, quote.
Appendix B: Implementing list and quote in Scheme
Implementing list is super simple because of how “rest argument” syntax works. This is all you need:
(define (list . args)
args)
That’s it!
In contrast, quote is a lot harder—in fact, it’s impossible! It would seem totally feasible, since the idea of disabling evaluation sounds a lot like macros. Yet a naïve attempt reveals the trouble:
(define fake-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ arg) arg)))
We just take arg and spit it back out... but this doesn’t work. Why not? Well, the result of our macro will be evaluated, so all is for naught. We might be able to expand to something sort of like quote by expanding to (list ...) and recursively quoting the elements, like this:
(define impostor-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ (a . b)) (cons (impostor-quote a) (impostor-quote b)))
((_ (e ...)) (list (impostor-quote e) ...))
((_ x) x)))
Unfortunately, though, without procedural macros, we can’t handle symbols without quote. We could get closer using syntax-case, but even then, we would only be emulating quote’s behavior, not replicating it.
Appendix C: Racket printing conventions
When trying the examples in this answer in Racket, you may find that they do not print as one would expect. Often, they may print with a leading ', such as in this example:
> (list 1 2 3)
'(1 2 3)
This is because Racket, by default, prints results as expressions when possible. That is, you should be able to type the result into the REPL and get the same value back. I personally find this behavior nice, but it can be confusing when trying to understand quotation, so if you want to turn it off, call (print-as-expression #f), or change the printing style to “write” in the DrRacket language menu.
The behavior you are seeing is a consequence of Scheme not treating symbols as functions.
The expression '(+ - * /) produces a value which is a list of symbols. That's simply because (+ - * /) is a list of symbols, and we are just quoting it to suppress evaluation in order to get that object literally as a value.
The expression (list + - * /) produces a list of functions. This is because it is a function call. The symbolic expressions list, +, -, * and / are evaluated. They are all variables which denote functions, and so are reduced to those functions. The list function is then called, and returns a list of those remaining four functions.
In ANSI Common Lisp, calling symbols as functions works:
[1]> (mapcar (lambda (f) (funcall f 1)) '(+ - * /))
(1 -1 1 1)
When a symbol is used where a function is expected, the top-level function binding of the symbol is substituted, if it has one, and everything is cool. In effect, symbols are function-callable objects in Common Lisp.
If you want to use list to produce a list of symbols, just like '(+ - * /), you have to quote them individually to suppress their evaluation:
(list '+ '- '* '/)
Back in the Scheme world, you will see that if you map over this, it will fail in the same way as the original quoted list. The reason is the same: trying to use a symbol objects as a functions.
The error message you are being shown is misleading:
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
This '+ being shown here is (quote +). But that's not what the application was given; it was given just +, the issue being that the symbol object + isn't usable as a function in that dialect.
What's going on here is that the diagnostic message is printing the + symbol in "print as expression" mode, a feature of Racket, which is what I guess you're using.
In "print as expression" mode, objects are printed using a syntax which must be read and evaluated to produce a similar object. See the StackOverflow question "Why does the Racket interpreter write lists with an apostroph before?"
Related
In 4.1.3 Evaluator Data Structures of SICP, it states:
That the user's programs are the evaluator's data need not be a source
of confusion. In fact, it is sometimes convenient to ignore this
distinction, and to give the user the ability to explicitly evaluate a
data object as a Lisp expression, by making eval available for use
in programs. Many Lisp dialects provide a primitive eval procedure
that takes as arguments an expression and an environment and evaluates
the expression relative to the environment.
Then experiment with
Chez Scheme Version 9.5
Copyright 1984-2017 Cisco Systems, Inc.
> (define a 5)
> (define b 6)
> (eval '(* a b))
30
I think the result not make sense, since it does both eval and apply.
As I learned from the proceeding contents, I predict the result should be
> (eval '(* a b))
'(* (5 6))
Then apply * to list-of-values (5 6).
Eval produce value of arguments and procedures to be applied rather than a final result.
Am I wrong with the understanding of eval?
Basically what happens with (eval '(* a b)) under the hood is as you describe. Since * is not a special form or macro it evaluates it to the procedure object, then it evaluates a and b and it then applies the procedure it got from evaluating * with the list of evaluated arguments. It does not stop half way so you get the full evaluation.
Also know that * is a variable. The procedure behind it you can see by evaluating *by itself. It would not have shown *.
I know that you can use ' (aka quote) to create a list, and I use this all the time, like this:
> (car '(1 2 3))
1
But it doesn’t always work like I’d expect. For example, I tried to create a list of functions, like this, but it didn’t work:
> (define math-fns '(+ - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
application: not a procedure;
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
When I use list, it works:
> (define math-fns (list + - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
'(1 -1 1 1)
Why? I thought ' was just a convenient shorthand, so why is the behavior different?
TL;DR: They are different; use list when in doubt.
A rule of thumb: use list whenever you want the arguments to be evaluated; quote “distributes” over its arguments, so '(+ 1 2) is like (list '+ '1 '2). You’ll end up with a symbol in your list, not a function.
An in-depth look at list and quote
In Scheme and Racket, quote and list are entirely different things, but since both of them can be used to produce lists, confusion is common and understandable. There is an incredibly important difference between them: list is a plain old function, while quote (even without the special ' syntax) is a special form. That is, list can be implemented in plain Scheme, but quote cannot be.
The list function
The list function is actually by far the simpler of the two, so let’s start there. It is a function that takes any number of arguments, and it collects the arguments into a list.
> (list 1 2 3)
(1 2 3)
This above example can be confusing because the result is printed as a quoteable s-expression, and it’s true, in this case, the two syntaxes are equivalent. But if we get slightly more complicated, you’ll see that it is different:
> (list 1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 2 3)
> '(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
What’s going on in the quote example? Well, we’ll discuss that in a moment, but first, take a look at list. It’s just an ordinary function, so it follows standard Scheme evaluation semantics: it evaluates each of its arguments before they get passed to the function. This means that expressions like (+ 1 1) will be reduced to 2 before they get collected into the list.
This behavior is also visible when supplying variables to the list function:
> (define x 42)
> (list x)
(42)
> '(x)
(x)
With list, the x gets evaluated before getting passed to list. With quote, things are more complicated.
Finally, because list is just a function, it can be used just like any other function, including in higher-order ways. For example, it can be passed to the map function, and it will work appropriately:
> (map list '(1 2 3) '(4 5 6))
((1 4) (2 5) (3 6))
The quote form
Quotation, unlike list, is a special part of Lisps. The quote form is special in part because it gets a special reader abbreviation, ', but it’s also special even without that. Unlike list, quote is not a function, and therefore it does not need to behave like one—it has rules of its own.
A brief discussion of Lisp source code
In Lisp, of which Scheme and Racket are derivatives, all code is actually made up of ordinary data structures. For example, consider the following expression:
(+ 1 2)
That expression is actually a list, and it has three elements:
the + symbol
the number 1
the number 2
All of these values are normal values that can be created by the programmer. It’s really easy to create the 1 value because it evaluates to itself: you just type 1. But symbols and lists are harder: by default, a symbol in the source code does a variable lookup! That is, symbols are not self-evaluating:
> 1
1
> a
a: undefined
cannot reference undefined identifier
As it turns out, though, symbols are basically just strings, and in fact we can convert between them:
> (string->symbol "a")
a
Lists do even more than symbols, because by default, a list in the source code calls a function! Doing (+ 1 2) looks at the first element in the list, the + symbol, looks up the function associated with it, and invokes it with the rest of the elements in the list.
Sometimes, though, you might want to disable this “special” behavior. You might want to just get the list or get the symbol without it being evaluated. To do this, you can use quote.
The meaning of quotation
With all this in mind, it’s pretty obvious what quote does: it just “turns off” the special evaluation behavior for the expression that it wraps. For example, consider quoteing a symbol:
> (quote a)
a
Similarly, consider quoteing a list:
> (quote (a b c))
(a b c)
No matter what you give quote, it will always, always spit it back out at you. No more, no less. That means if you give it a list, none of the subexpressions will be evaluated—do not expect them to be! If you need evaluation of any kind, use list.
Now, one might ask: what happens if you quote something other than a symbol or a list? Well, the answer is... nothing! You just get it back.
> (quote 1)
1
> (quote "abcd")
"abcd"
This makes sense, since quote still just spits out exactly what you give it. This is why “literals” like numbers and strings are sometimes called “self-quoting” in Lisp parlance.
One more thing: what happens if you quote an expression containing quote? That is, what if you “double quote”?
> (quote (quote 3))
'3
What happened there? Well, remember that ' is actually just a direct abbreviation for quote, so nothing special happened at all! In fact, if your Scheme has a way to disable the abbreviations when printing, it will look like this:
> (quote (quote 3))
(quote 3)
Don’t be fooled by quote being special: just like (quote (+ 1)), the result here is just a plain old list. In fact, we can get the first element out of the list: can you guess what it will be?
> (car (quote (quote 3)))
quote
If you guessed 3, you are wrong. Remember, quote disables all evaluation, and an expression containing a quote symbol is still just a plain list. Play with this in the REPL until you are comfortable with it.
> (quote (quote (quote 3)))
''3
(quote (1 2 (quote 3)))
(1 2 '3)
Quotation is incredibly simple, but it can come off as very complex because of how it tends to defy our understanding of the traditional evaluation model. In fact, it is confusing because of how simple it is: there are no special cases, there are no rules. It just returns exactly what you give it, precisely as stated (hence the name “quotation”).
Appendix A: Quasiquotation
So if quotation completely disables evaluation, what is it good for? Well, aside from making lists of strings, symbols, or numbers that are all known ahead of time, not much. Fortunately, the concept of quasiquotation provides a way to break out of the quotation and go back into ordinary evaluation.
The basics are super simple: instead of using quote, use quasiquote. Normally, this works exactly like quote in every way:
> (quasiquote 3)
3
> (quasiquote x)
x
> (quasiquote ((a b) (c d)))
((a b) (c d))
What makes quasiquote special is that is recognizes a special symbol, unquote. Wherever unquote appears in the list, then it is replaced by the arbitrary expression it contains:
> (quasiquote (1 2 (+ 1 2)))
(1 2 (+ 1 2))
> (quasiquote (1 2 (unquote (+ 1 2))))
(1 2 3)
This lets you use quasiquote to construct templates of sorts that have “holes” to be filled in with unquote. This means it’s possible to actually include the values of variables inside of quoted lists:
> (define x 42)
> (quasiquote (x is: (unquote x)))
(x is: 42)
Of course, using quasiquote and unquote is rather verbose, so they have abbreviations of their own, just like '. Specifically, quasiquote is ` (backtick) and unquote is , (comma). With those abbreviations, the above example is much more palatable.
> `(x is: ,x)
(x is: 42)
One final point: quasiquote actually can be implemented in Racket using a rather hairy macro, and it is. It expands to usages of list, cons, and of course, quote.
Appendix B: Implementing list and quote in Scheme
Implementing list is super simple because of how “rest argument” syntax works. This is all you need:
(define (list . args)
args)
That’s it!
In contrast, quote is a lot harder—in fact, it’s impossible! It would seem totally feasible, since the idea of disabling evaluation sounds a lot like macros. Yet a naïve attempt reveals the trouble:
(define fake-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ arg) arg)))
We just take arg and spit it back out... but this doesn’t work. Why not? Well, the result of our macro will be evaluated, so all is for naught. We might be able to expand to something sort of like quote by expanding to (list ...) and recursively quoting the elements, like this:
(define impostor-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ (a . b)) (cons (impostor-quote a) (impostor-quote b)))
((_ (e ...)) (list (impostor-quote e) ...))
((_ x) x)))
Unfortunately, though, without procedural macros, we can’t handle symbols without quote. We could get closer using syntax-case, but even then, we would only be emulating quote’s behavior, not replicating it.
Appendix C: Racket printing conventions
When trying the examples in this answer in Racket, you may find that they do not print as one would expect. Often, they may print with a leading ', such as in this example:
> (list 1 2 3)
'(1 2 3)
This is because Racket, by default, prints results as expressions when possible. That is, you should be able to type the result into the REPL and get the same value back. I personally find this behavior nice, but it can be confusing when trying to understand quotation, so if you want to turn it off, call (print-as-expression #f), or change the printing style to “write” in the DrRacket language menu.
The behavior you are seeing is a consequence of Scheme not treating symbols as functions.
The expression '(+ - * /) produces a value which is a list of symbols. That's simply because (+ - * /) is a list of symbols, and we are just quoting it to suppress evaluation in order to get that object literally as a value.
The expression (list + - * /) produces a list of functions. This is because it is a function call. The symbolic expressions list, +, -, * and / are evaluated. They are all variables which denote functions, and so are reduced to those functions. The list function is then called, and returns a list of those remaining four functions.
In ANSI Common Lisp, calling symbols as functions works:
[1]> (mapcar (lambda (f) (funcall f 1)) '(+ - * /))
(1 -1 1 1)
When a symbol is used where a function is expected, the top-level function binding of the symbol is substituted, if it has one, and everything is cool. In effect, symbols are function-callable objects in Common Lisp.
If you want to use list to produce a list of symbols, just like '(+ - * /), you have to quote them individually to suppress their evaluation:
(list '+ '- '* '/)
Back in the Scheme world, you will see that if you map over this, it will fail in the same way as the original quoted list. The reason is the same: trying to use a symbol objects as a functions.
The error message you are being shown is misleading:
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
This '+ being shown here is (quote +). But that's not what the application was given; it was given just +, the issue being that the symbol object + isn't usable as a function in that dialect.
What's going on here is that the diagnostic message is printing the + symbol in "print as expression" mode, a feature of Racket, which is what I guess you're using.
In "print as expression" mode, objects are printed using a syntax which must be read and evaluated to produce a similar object. See the StackOverflow question "Why does the Racket interpreter write lists with an apostroph before?"
I know that you can use ' (aka quote) to create a list, and I use this all the time, like this:
> (car '(1 2 3))
1
But it doesn’t always work like I’d expect. For example, I tried to create a list of functions, like this, but it didn’t work:
> (define math-fns '(+ - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
application: not a procedure;
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
When I use list, it works:
> (define math-fns (list + - * /))
> (map (lambda (fn) (fn 1)) math-fns)
'(1 -1 1 1)
Why? I thought ' was just a convenient shorthand, so why is the behavior different?
TL;DR: They are different; use list when in doubt.
A rule of thumb: use list whenever you want the arguments to be evaluated; quote “distributes” over its arguments, so '(+ 1 2) is like (list '+ '1 '2). You’ll end up with a symbol in your list, not a function.
An in-depth look at list and quote
In Scheme and Racket, quote and list are entirely different things, but since both of them can be used to produce lists, confusion is common and understandable. There is an incredibly important difference between them: list is a plain old function, while quote (even without the special ' syntax) is a special form. That is, list can be implemented in plain Scheme, but quote cannot be.
The list function
The list function is actually by far the simpler of the two, so let’s start there. It is a function that takes any number of arguments, and it collects the arguments into a list.
> (list 1 2 3)
(1 2 3)
This above example can be confusing because the result is printed as a quoteable s-expression, and it’s true, in this case, the two syntaxes are equivalent. But if we get slightly more complicated, you’ll see that it is different:
> (list 1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 2 3)
> '(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
(1 (+ 1 1) (+ 1 1 1))
What’s going on in the quote example? Well, we’ll discuss that in a moment, but first, take a look at list. It’s just an ordinary function, so it follows standard Scheme evaluation semantics: it evaluates each of its arguments before they get passed to the function. This means that expressions like (+ 1 1) will be reduced to 2 before they get collected into the list.
This behavior is also visible when supplying variables to the list function:
> (define x 42)
> (list x)
(42)
> '(x)
(x)
With list, the x gets evaluated before getting passed to list. With quote, things are more complicated.
Finally, because list is just a function, it can be used just like any other function, including in higher-order ways. For example, it can be passed to the map function, and it will work appropriately:
> (map list '(1 2 3) '(4 5 6))
((1 4) (2 5) (3 6))
The quote form
Quotation, unlike list, is a special part of Lisps. The quote form is special in part because it gets a special reader abbreviation, ', but it’s also special even without that. Unlike list, quote is not a function, and therefore it does not need to behave like one—it has rules of its own.
A brief discussion of Lisp source code
In Lisp, of which Scheme and Racket are derivatives, all code is actually made up of ordinary data structures. For example, consider the following expression:
(+ 1 2)
That expression is actually a list, and it has three elements:
the + symbol
the number 1
the number 2
All of these values are normal values that can be created by the programmer. It’s really easy to create the 1 value because it evaluates to itself: you just type 1. But symbols and lists are harder: by default, a symbol in the source code does a variable lookup! That is, symbols are not self-evaluating:
> 1
1
> a
a: undefined
cannot reference undefined identifier
As it turns out, though, symbols are basically just strings, and in fact we can convert between them:
> (string->symbol "a")
a
Lists do even more than symbols, because by default, a list in the source code calls a function! Doing (+ 1 2) looks at the first element in the list, the + symbol, looks up the function associated with it, and invokes it with the rest of the elements in the list.
Sometimes, though, you might want to disable this “special” behavior. You might want to just get the list or get the symbol without it being evaluated. To do this, you can use quote.
The meaning of quotation
With all this in mind, it’s pretty obvious what quote does: it just “turns off” the special evaluation behavior for the expression that it wraps. For example, consider quoteing a symbol:
> (quote a)
a
Similarly, consider quoteing a list:
> (quote (a b c))
(a b c)
No matter what you give quote, it will always, always spit it back out at you. No more, no less. That means if you give it a list, none of the subexpressions will be evaluated—do not expect them to be! If you need evaluation of any kind, use list.
Now, one might ask: what happens if you quote something other than a symbol or a list? Well, the answer is... nothing! You just get it back.
> (quote 1)
1
> (quote "abcd")
"abcd"
This makes sense, since quote still just spits out exactly what you give it. This is why “literals” like numbers and strings are sometimes called “self-quoting” in Lisp parlance.
One more thing: what happens if you quote an expression containing quote? That is, what if you “double quote”?
> (quote (quote 3))
'3
What happened there? Well, remember that ' is actually just a direct abbreviation for quote, so nothing special happened at all! In fact, if your Scheme has a way to disable the abbreviations when printing, it will look like this:
> (quote (quote 3))
(quote 3)
Don’t be fooled by quote being special: just like (quote (+ 1)), the result here is just a plain old list. In fact, we can get the first element out of the list: can you guess what it will be?
> (car (quote (quote 3)))
quote
If you guessed 3, you are wrong. Remember, quote disables all evaluation, and an expression containing a quote symbol is still just a plain list. Play with this in the REPL until you are comfortable with it.
> (quote (quote (quote 3)))
''3
(quote (1 2 (quote 3)))
(1 2 '3)
Quotation is incredibly simple, but it can come off as very complex because of how it tends to defy our understanding of the traditional evaluation model. In fact, it is confusing because of how simple it is: there are no special cases, there are no rules. It just returns exactly what you give it, precisely as stated (hence the name “quotation”).
Appendix A: Quasiquotation
So if quotation completely disables evaluation, what is it good for? Well, aside from making lists of strings, symbols, or numbers that are all known ahead of time, not much. Fortunately, the concept of quasiquotation provides a way to break out of the quotation and go back into ordinary evaluation.
The basics are super simple: instead of using quote, use quasiquote. Normally, this works exactly like quote in every way:
> (quasiquote 3)
3
> (quasiquote x)
x
> (quasiquote ((a b) (c d)))
((a b) (c d))
What makes quasiquote special is that is recognizes a special symbol, unquote. Wherever unquote appears in the list, then it is replaced by the arbitrary expression it contains:
> (quasiquote (1 2 (+ 1 2)))
(1 2 (+ 1 2))
> (quasiquote (1 2 (unquote (+ 1 2))))
(1 2 3)
This lets you use quasiquote to construct templates of sorts that have “holes” to be filled in with unquote. This means it’s possible to actually include the values of variables inside of quoted lists:
> (define x 42)
> (quasiquote (x is: (unquote x)))
(x is: 42)
Of course, using quasiquote and unquote is rather verbose, so they have abbreviations of their own, just like '. Specifically, quasiquote is ` (backtick) and unquote is , (comma). With those abbreviations, the above example is much more palatable.
> `(x is: ,x)
(x is: 42)
One final point: quasiquote actually can be implemented in Racket using a rather hairy macro, and it is. It expands to usages of list, cons, and of course, quote.
Appendix B: Implementing list and quote in Scheme
Implementing list is super simple because of how “rest argument” syntax works. This is all you need:
(define (list . args)
args)
That’s it!
In contrast, quote is a lot harder—in fact, it’s impossible! It would seem totally feasible, since the idea of disabling evaluation sounds a lot like macros. Yet a naïve attempt reveals the trouble:
(define fake-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ arg) arg)))
We just take arg and spit it back out... but this doesn’t work. Why not? Well, the result of our macro will be evaluated, so all is for naught. We might be able to expand to something sort of like quote by expanding to (list ...) and recursively quoting the elements, like this:
(define impostor-quote
(syntax-rules ()
((_ (a . b)) (cons (impostor-quote a) (impostor-quote b)))
((_ (e ...)) (list (impostor-quote e) ...))
((_ x) x)))
Unfortunately, though, without procedural macros, we can’t handle symbols without quote. We could get closer using syntax-case, but even then, we would only be emulating quote’s behavior, not replicating it.
Appendix C: Racket printing conventions
When trying the examples in this answer in Racket, you may find that they do not print as one would expect. Often, they may print with a leading ', such as in this example:
> (list 1 2 3)
'(1 2 3)
This is because Racket, by default, prints results as expressions when possible. That is, you should be able to type the result into the REPL and get the same value back. I personally find this behavior nice, but it can be confusing when trying to understand quotation, so if you want to turn it off, call (print-as-expression #f), or change the printing style to “write” in the DrRacket language menu.
The behavior you are seeing is a consequence of Scheme not treating symbols as functions.
The expression '(+ - * /) produces a value which is a list of symbols. That's simply because (+ - * /) is a list of symbols, and we are just quoting it to suppress evaluation in order to get that object literally as a value.
The expression (list + - * /) produces a list of functions. This is because it is a function call. The symbolic expressions list, +, -, * and / are evaluated. They are all variables which denote functions, and so are reduced to those functions. The list function is then called, and returns a list of those remaining four functions.
In ANSI Common Lisp, calling symbols as functions works:
[1]> (mapcar (lambda (f) (funcall f 1)) '(+ - * /))
(1 -1 1 1)
When a symbol is used where a function is expected, the top-level function binding of the symbol is substituted, if it has one, and everything is cool. In effect, symbols are function-callable objects in Common Lisp.
If you want to use list to produce a list of symbols, just like '(+ - * /), you have to quote them individually to suppress their evaluation:
(list '+ '- '* '/)
Back in the Scheme world, you will see that if you map over this, it will fail in the same way as the original quoted list. The reason is the same: trying to use a symbol objects as a functions.
The error message you are being shown is misleading:
expected a procedure that can be applied to arguments
given: '+
This '+ being shown here is (quote +). But that's not what the application was given; it was given just +, the issue being that the symbol object + isn't usable as a function in that dialect.
What's going on here is that the diagnostic message is printing the + symbol in "print as expression" mode, a feature of Racket, which is what I guess you're using.
In "print as expression" mode, objects are printed using a syntax which must be read and evaluated to produce a similar object. See the StackOverflow question "Why does the Racket interpreter write lists with an apostroph before?"
I try to implement a "special-if" that suppose to behave like regular "if" with cond. Here's the code:
(define (special-if pre act alt)
(cond (pre act)
(else alt)))
To test if this works, I wrote a factorial function with this "special-if":
(define (factorial n)
(special-if (= n 1)
1
(* n (factorial (- n 1)))))
However, when I evaluate (factorial 3), it runs forever. Seems the predicate part (= n 1) was never evaluated. Can anyone tell me why this won't work? Thanks.
Your special if is doomed to fail, I'm afraid. Remember: if is an special form with different evaluation rules (and cond is a macro implemented using if), that's why an expression like this runs fine even though it has a division by zero:
(if true 'ok (/ 1 0))
=> 'ok
... whereas your special-if will raise an error, because it's using the normal evaluation rules that apply for procedures, meaning that all its arguments get evaluated before executing the procedure:
(special-if true 'ok (/ 1 0))
=> /: division by zero
Now you see why your code fails: at the bottom of the recursion when n is 1 both the consequent and the alternative will execute!
(special-if (= 1 1)
1 ; this expression is evaluated
(* 1 (factorial (- 1 1)))) ; and this expression too!
... And factorial will happily continue to execute with values 0, -1, -2 and so on, leading to an infinite loop. Bottom line: you have to use an existing special form (or define a new macro) for implementing conditional behavior, a user-defined standard procedure simply won't work here.
You've heard why your special-if doesn't work, but you accepted an answer that doesn't tell you how to make it work:
(define-syntax special-if
(syntax-rules ()
((_ pre act alt)
(cond (pre act)
(else alt)))))
That defines a macro, which is expanded at compile time. Every time the compiler sees something that matches this pattern and begins with special-if, it gets replaced with the template shown. As a result, pre, act, and alt don't get evaluated until your special-if form gets turned into a cond form.
Understanding how macros work is difficult using Scheme, because Scheme does its damnedest to hide what's really going on. If you were using Common Lisp, the macro would be a simple function that takes snippets of uncompiled code (in the form of lists, symbols, strings, and numbers) as arguments, and returns uncompiled code as its value. In Common Lisp, special-if would just return a list:
(defmacro special-if (pre act alt)
(list 'cond (list pre act)
(list t alt)))
Scheme macros work the same way, except the lists, symbols, etc. are wrapped in "syntax objects" that also contain lexical information, and instead of using list
operators such as car and cdr, Scheme and Racket provide a pattern-matching and template engine that delves into the syntax objects and handles the extra data (but doesn't allow you to handle any of it directly).
I'm refamiliarizing myself with Scheme and I've hit a problem that is probably reflecting a fundamental misunderstanding on my part.
Say I do the following in Scheme (using Guile in this case but it's the same in Chicken):
> (define x 5)
> x
5
> (string->symbol "x")
x
> (+ 5 (string->symbol "x"))
<unnamed port>:45:0: In procedure #<procedure 1b84960 at <current input>:45:0 ()>:
<unnamed port>:45:0: In procedure +: Wrong type: x
> (symbol? (string->symbol "x"))
#t
> (+ 5 x) ; here x is dereferenced to its value 5
10
> (+ 5 'x) ; here x is not dereferenced
<unnamed port>:47:0: In procedure #<procedure 1c7ba60 at <current input>:47:0 ()>:
<unnamed port>:47:0: In procedure +: Wrong type: x
I understand that string->symbol is returning a symbol, x, which is effectively quoted. However, I cannot figure out how to use the symbol returned by string->symbol in any later context. How can I have Scheme evaluate that symbol?
To give a background on why I want to do this, it's that I'm writing a C program with embedded Guile. I would like to be able to be able to access symbols defined in Guile by name from C, using for example scm_from_*_symbol or scm_string_to_symbol. The reasons these functions aren't working the way I thought they would is related to my core question above. Perhaps there's a better way to do what I want to do with Guile, but that's a different question. Right now I'm interested in the fundamental question above.
What you want is to evaluate the symbol (not to "dereference" it). I think this is what you meant:
(define x 5)
(+ 5 (eval 'x (interaction-environment)))
=> 10
Take a look at the documentation for further details.
You should read the chapter fly-evaluation of the Guile documentation.
You want eval and probably interaction-environment
I recommend reading the famous SICP and Queinnec's Lisp In Small Pieces
Symbols are not special in this sense, that is they are not easier to evaluate than ordinary strings.
Symbol is much like a string, it just doesn't have quotes around it. Well, the fundamental difference is, of course, not absence of quotes, but the fact that symbols are interned. This means that strings "x" and "x" are two different strings (although they are equal), while symbols 'x and 'x are actually the same object.